Rise of Radicals in the Indian National Movement: From Moderates to Extremists
The last decade of the 19th century was full of misery for Indians. Large parts of the country were ravaged by famine and millions of people died. Indian leaders blamed the policies of the government for the poverty and death of people and vehemently criticised it. The government continued its repressive measures.
A new phase began in the history of the nationalist movement from 1905. This phase sought to involve more Indians soon and make the freedom movement a mass movement. Leaders like Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal (popularly known as Lal-Bal-Pal) insisted that the people would have to rely on their own strength rather than the good intentions of the alien government.
The aim of the Indian people should be the attainment of swaraj. New methods of political agitation like strikes and boycott of foreign goods, mass demonstrations to spread awakening among the people and to achieve political reforms were introduced. These trends gradually became more and more popular and soon began to dominate the nationalist movement and the Congress.
One of the earliest torchbearers of this new spirit was Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyaya. He composed the song Bande Mataram which became the most popular national song. Aurobindo Ghosh inspired people with his fiery writings in Indu Prakash, entitled as ‘New Lamps for Old’. Others like Dadabhai Naoroji and R. C. Dutt exposed the exploitation of the Indian resources by the British and misery of the peasants.
A prominent leader amongst the extremists was Bal Gangadhar Tilak. He believed that freedom from foreign rule could remove all social evils and declared, “Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it.” He mobilised the masses by organising Hindu festivals where people gathered in large numbers. It served as a meeting ground for people of all castes and communities. His papers Kesari (Marathi) and the Mahratta (English) became mouthpieces of the new leaders.
Other prominent extremist leaders were Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai. Lala Lajpat Rai was active in north India particularly Punjab. Bipin Chandra Pal actively participated against the Arms Act and in the Partition of Bengal.
Influence of World Events on India’s Freedom Struggle
As the people became more and more disillusioned with the British government, the influence of the extremist leaders began to increase. Certain events outside India also gave rise to the anti-British upsurge and inspired patriotism. World events like the Russian Revolution of 1917, the uprisings in Ireland in 1916 and the victory of Japan against Russia (1904-05) generated confidence among the educated Indians in their struggle against the British rule.
Partition of Bengal (1905): A Turning Point in the Nationalist Movement
The one single event that changed the aims and methods of the nationalist movement was the Partition of Bengal in 1905. Bengal was then the largest province of British India. Lord Curzon became the Viceroy of India on December 30, 1898. In order to weaken the position of the Congress, he adopted the Divide and Rule Policy.
In July 1905, the Viceroy Lord Curzon published the proposal to divide the province into two parts, East Bengal (now Bangladesh) and West Bengal (then consisting of present day West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha and Bangladesh). The people of Bengal reacted strongly against the partition. Both the moderates and the radicals launched movements to end the partition. Hundreds of meetings were held all over Bengal in protest against the scheme. Inspite of these protests, the partition scheme was introduced and on October 16, 1905 a new province of East Bengal and Assam came into existence with Dhaka as its capital. Protest meetings were held throughout the country and a massive demonstration was held at the Kolkata Town Hall and other towns.
Anti-Partition Movement: United Resistance Against British Policies
The day of the partition was observed as a day of mourning all over Bengal. All business came to a halt. On the suggestion of the great poet Rabindranath Tagore, the day was also observed as a day of unity and solidarity. People all over Bengal tied rakhis around each other’s wrists. Through the ceremony they expressed their fellow-feeling and brotherhood.
Swadeshi and Boycott Movements (1905): Economic Resistance Against Colonial Rule
It was during the Partition of Bengal that new methods of struggle were adopted, which included swadeshi (‘of one’s own country’) and boycott movements. It encouraged people to use goods produced within the country. People were asked to abstain from the purchase of British goods so long as the partition resolution was not withdrawn.
The swadeshi and boycott movements started spreading to other parts of the country. Common people began to participate in anti-British political activities. British cloth, sugar, and other goods were boycotted. People, particularly students, went in groups to shopkeepers persuading them not to sell British goods. They also persuaded people not to use foreign goods. At some places barbers, washermen and others refused to serve people who sold British goods.
The government took repressive measures. Many students were expelled from schools and colleges. Many were beaten and sent to jail. However, in 1911 the government was forced to annul the Partition and the capital of British India was shifted to Delhi from Calcutta (now Kolkata).
The Goal of Swaraj: Moderates vs Radicals in the Congress
The Congress, under Gopal Krishna Gokhale, in its session of 1905 held at Benaras, gave its support to the swadeshi and boycott movements. But the moderates believed that these methods should be used only in special circumstances. They did not like these to become general methods of agitation against the British rule. Thus, they were opposed to an all-out struggle against the British. They believed that through petitions and appeals, the Liberal government (the Liberal Party had come to power in Britain) could be persuaded to bring about improvements in administration.
The radicals, however, wanted to extend the scope of boycott. They boycotted the schools, colleges and universities which were run with support from the British government. They also started educational institutions of their own.
Though it was clear that both the moderates and the radicals wanted swaraj, they differed on the methods and could not pull together for long.
Surat Session of 1907: The Congress Split
At the Surat session of 1907, under the presidentship of Rashbehari Ghosh, the moderates reasserted the attainment of self-government within the British Empire through constitutional methods as their goal.
The radicals, under the leadership of Aurobindo Ghosh, reaffirmed their belief in swaraj and advocated swadeshi and boycott to achieve their goal. Swaraj for them meant complete independence from British rule. English schools and colleges too were boycotted, special national institutions sprang up to train Indian youth morally and physically; the swadeshi movement slowly became a mass movement which engulfed the Indian population including women and children.
On the other hand the moderate leaders, who in fact dominated the Congress, did not oppose the British to such an extent so as to drive them out of Bengal. The Congress therefore split in 1907 and the two groups were reunited only in 1916 in the Congress session at Lucknow.
In 1907, Lala Lajpat Rai was arrested for holding demonstrations in Punjab. Tilak was arrested and sentenced to six years, rigorous imprisonment in 1908. He was later deported to Burma (now Myanmar). Several other leaders were either imprisoned or deported.
Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909: Constitutional Changes and Communal Electorates
The British tried to win over moderate nationalists by offering a few institutional reforms. They passed the Indian Councils’ Act of 1909 which is known as the Morley-Minto Reforms named after the then Secretary of State for India John Morley and the Viceroy, Lord Minto.
The Act increased the number of elected members in the Central and Provincial Legislative Councils, the powers of these members remained advisory in nature.
- To create disunity between the Hindus and Muslims, this Act further introduced a system of communal electorates. The Hindu and Muslim voters were to elect members of their own community.
- The British were partially successful in achieving their goal, which was to divide the nationalists, to check the growth of unity among the Indians and to create differences between the Hindus and the Muslims.
Formation of the Muslim League (1906): Separate Political Identity
During the revolt of 1857, the Hindus and the Muslims had fought shoulder to shoulder. The British had held the Muslims responsible for the revolt and had committed great atrocities on them. On the other hand, they treated the Hindus with favour. This marked the beginning of the Divide and Rule Policy introduced by the British to check the growth of unity and nationalist feeling in the country.
The campaign to emphasise that all were Indians irrespective of caste, religion, language or gender, remained incomplete. Different communities formed political parties to put forward demands as they thought fit, to the British. One such political organisation was the Muslim League. A delegation headed by the Agha Khan and the Nawab of Dhaka, approached the Viceroy, Lord Minto in Shimla.
The Viceroy accepted their demand and the Muslim League, a separate organisation of the Muslims, was established in 1906 under the leadership of Nawab Salimullah of Dhaka. Like the Congress, the League too held annual sessions. The aims of the Muslim League at the early stage were:
- To protect and advance the political rights and interests of Muslims.
- To ensure that the Muslims did not develop feelings of hostility towards any other community in India and also the British.
- To promote loyalty to the British government.
In spite of the efforts of the British, the Muslim masses were drawn into the nationalist movement and many Muslim leaders like Abul Kalam Azad, Mohammed Ali and Hakim Ajmal Khan emerged.
The Muslim League was itself influenced by the anti-imperialist ideas, and in 1913, it adopted the attainment of self-government as its aim and in 1916 it passed the same resolution as the INC marking a temporary unity between the two major political parties of India.
Nationalist Movement during the First World War (1914): Impact on Indian Freedom Struggle
The First World War started in 1914, and lasted upto 1918. This war was global in character and caused more destruction in the world than any previous war. Therefore, it was called the ‘Great War’ at the time and is today referred to as the First World War. It had a great impact on India. The British utilised Indian resources and soldiers in the War, which had nothing to do with the Indians.
- The British Indian Army saw action in a number of campaigns of World War I.
- Indian troops fought in all the theatres of the Great War, winning 13,000 medals for gallantry including 12 Victoria Crosses. “The Times” noted that during the war “The Indian empire has overwhelmed the British nation by the completeness and unanimity of its enthusiastic aid.”
Home Rule Movement (1916): Annie Besant and Tilak’s Leadership
The Indian national leaders decided that they would support the British government with men and money, provided the government gave the promise of self-government. They started an agitation for the introduction of self-government or Home Rule. Tilak formed the Home Rule League on his return from exile in Burma (now Myanmar) in 1914.
Another prominent member of the Home Rule League was an Irish lady, Annie Besant, who had come to India in 1893, and had become the leader of the Theosophical Society. It was a result of her efforts that the moderates and the radicals were reunited in 1916.
Lucknow Pact (1916): Congress-Muslim League Unity
In the First World War, Britain and Turkey were fighting on opposite sides. Since the Sultan of Turkey was also the head of the Islamic world, the Muslims were annoyed by the British attitude towards Turkey. This brought the Muslims closer to the Congress. The annual sessions of the League and Congress were held at Lucknow in 1916 and a pact was signed. The moderates and the radicals were also united.
This pact allowed separate representation of the Muslims in the councils. This removed the fear of the Muslim League that the Hindus would dominate the councils formed through elections, and that the Muslim interests would suffer. The coming together of the Congress and the Muslim League strengthened the nationalist movement.
Rowlatt Act (1919): Repressive Legislation and Nationwide Protest
The British realised that the Montagu-Chelmsford report had not come up to the expectations of the people. Expecting agitation in the country, they passed the Rowlatt Act in March 1919. This Act empowered the government to arrest anyone without a warrant and imprison anyone without a trial. As this was a clear violation of the civil rights of the people, it caused widespread discontent.
The Congress condemned the government. People began to organise meetings and protests against the Act. The Act charged the political atmosphere of the country and soon a new phase began in the history of India’s struggle for freedom.
GANDHIJI’S ADVENT ON INDIA’S POLITICAL SCENE: The Mass Leader Emerges
One of the most prominent personalities of Indian politics was Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. Born on October 2, 1869, at Porbandar, in Gujarat, he proceeded to England in 1888, to study law.
In May 1893, he left for South Africa. He fought against the oppression faced by the Indians living there. It was in the course of resistance against the oppressive policies of the Whites there, that Gandhiji first used his new political weapon which came to be known as satyagraha. (A person offering satyagraha prepared himself to undergo any hardship and suffering. It was a non-violent method of protest against oppression and unjust laws.) Gandhiji returned to India in 1915 and involved himself in the struggle against the British.
- In Bihar, he took up the cause of poor peasants against the oppression of indigo planters.
- In Gujarat, he took up the cause of the peasants who wanted the collection of revenue to be suspended due to crop failure.
- In Ahmedabad, he took up the cause of textile workers, who were demanding a raise in their wages.
Due to his success in these local movements Gandhiji became the undisputed leader of the Indian people. Gandhiji infused in the masses a spirit of fearlessness and the will to stand against any repression, whether it was imprisonment, lathi charge or firing.
Some of the methods of fighting oppression practised by the people under his leadership were open defiance of laws, boycott of law courts, boycott of offices, non-payment of taxes, peaceful demonstrations and picketing of shops selling foreign goods. Under Gandhiji these movements were launched on a mass scale and people from all walks of life participated in them. The Nationalist Movement became truly a mass movement with the participation of peasants, and other poor people. Women also participated in Gandhian protest movements. Some of the issues were as follows:
- He devoted himself to the fight against the inhuman practice of untouchability.
- He started a crusade to root out this evil and referred to the oppressed class as ‘Harijans’ (sons of God).
- In his ashram, together with his followers, he performed all those tasks which were otherwise carried out by untouchables.
- To uplift the people living in villages, he encouraged the growth of small industries.
- According to him, there would be no progress in India unless there was improvement in the life of the people in villages, where a major population of Indians lived.
- He worked hard to popularise khadi and made it essential for every Congressman to wear khadi.
- The charkha became a symbol of the village industry and self-reliance. It was also made a part of the Congress flag.
Gandhiji also preached the concept of universal brotherhood. He was the champion of Hindu-Muslim unity, and finally became a martyr to this cause.
British Policy after the War: Broken Promises and Constitutional Reforms
Many Congress leaders believed that when the War came to an end, India would be granted swaraj or self-government. The British government, however, had no such intentions. At the same time, it realised that repression alone would not be of much help. Hence it decided to concede to some of the demands made by the Congress.
Government of India Act, 1919: Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms
The Government of India Act of 1919, which was earlier called the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, introduced a number of changes in the central and provincial governments in India. But none of these changes were towards realising the goal of self-government. The Viceroy at the centre and the governor in the provinces could still reject proposals made by the legislatures. The few members who could be elected represented the wealthy sections of Indian society since the right to vote was restricted on the basis of property. The legislature had no control over the Viceroy and his Executive Council.
The subjects in the provincial list were divided into two parts, ‘transferred’ and ‘reserved’. The reserved subjects were administered by the Governor with the help of the Executive Council and the transferred subjects, with the help of his ministers. Subjects like finance, law and order, general administration, etc., were reserved subjects while subjects like education, health, etc., were in the list of transferred subjects. The Governor could overrule the decision of the ministers. The Governor General and his Executive Council continued to enjoy all the important powers. The system of election despite being direct, allowed the Sikhs, the Anglo-Indians and the Europeans to elect their own representatives. This encouraged the growth of communalism.
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919): A Turning Point in India’s Freedom Struggle
On April 13, 1919, a public meeting was held at Jallianwala Bagh in protest against the arrest of the two leaders Dr Satya Pal and Dr Saifuddin Kitchlew. An unarmed crowd of men, women and children had gathered to attend the meeting. No sooner had the meeting begun, General Dyer, a British military officer, arrived on the spot with his troops at the entrance of the Bagh and without any warning, ordered the troops to fire upon the crowd.
The firing continued for ten minutes. Nobody could escape as the only exit had been blocked. Nearly a thousand people died while many more were injured. Curfew was imposed throughout Punjab.
It would be difficult to find a parallel in the annals of any civilised government to the cold-blooded massacre which took place at Jallianwala Bagh. Rabindranath Tagore relinquished his knighthood as a mark of protest and wrote a strong but dignified letter to the Viceroy. The massacre marked a turning point in the history of the struggle for freedom. The tragic incident and the brutalities that followed strengthened the people’s determination to fight against oppression and gain freedom.
Khilafat Movement: Hindu-Muslim Unity Against British Oppression
The movement was initiated by the Maulana Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali, both brothers, to protest against atrocities committed by the British in Turkey. Further, the Sultan of Turkey was also the religious head (khalifa) of all Muslims of the world. The Khilafat (named after the Khalifa) Movement gave a call for non-cooperation. It was soon merged with the movement against repression in the Punjab.
Non-Cooperation Movement (1920): Gandhiji’s First Mass Movement
In 1920, Gandhiji started the Non-Cooperation Movement. He advised the people not to cooperate with the British, with a view to bring the administration to a standstill.
The Non-Cooperation Movement, launched by Gandhiji, began with the renunciation of honoured titles like ‘Sir’ that Indians had received from the British government. Subramania Iyer and Rabindranath Tagore had already done so. Gandhiji returned his Kaiser-i-Hind medal in August 1920. Many others followed as Indians no longer considered it an honour to receive a title from the British government.
People refused to cast their votes when elections were held to elect representatives to the legislature. Thousands of students and teachers left schools and colleges. Indians serving in British administration were urged to resign or stay away from offices. Lawyers boycotted courts. People made bonfires of foreign clothes. There were strikes and hartals all over the country.
Chauri Chaura Incident (1922): The Unfortunate Turning Point
The Non-Cooperation Movement was a great success and the government resorted to stern measures to suppress it. Important leaders and thousands of people were put behind bars. The movement was in full swing when in Chauri Chaura, Gorakhpur, the police fired upon a Congress procession of 3,300 peasants. The angry crowd set the police station on fire, killing 22 policemen. Gandhiji had always emphasised that the entire movement should be non-violent and peaceful. After this incident he called off the movement unilaterally in 1922. On March 10, 1922 he was arrested and sentenced to six year’s imprisonment. The calling off of the movement ended one more phase of the national movement.
The Non-Cooperation Movement was a significant event in the history of our struggle for freedom. It made the national movement a mass movement. It made the people bold and patriotic.
The Swaraj Party And The Constructive Programme: Post-Movement Strategy
After the withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement, the Congress was divided into two groups.
- The group led by C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru and Vithalbhai Patel decided that the Congress should contest the elections and wreck the working of the legislatures from within.
- They fought the elections in 1923, which they won with a large number of seats in the Central and Provincial legislatures.
- They raised the demand for provincial autonomy in the provinces and dominion status in India.
- They often made it impossible for the government to get the approval of the Legislature for its policies and proposals.
- The other group led by Vallabhbhai Patel, C. Rajagopalachari and Rajendra Prasad, was with Gandhiji for the Constructive Programme and opposed the policies of the other group.
At the historic Lahore session of 1929 under the presidentship of Jawaharlal Nehru, the Congress declared the attainment of Purna Swaraj or Complete Independence as its aim. January 26, 1930 was a red-letter day in the history of the Indian nationalist movement as mass Civil Disobedience Movement was launched on that day. People took a pledge to attain Purna Swaraj or complete independence. Earlier, Gandhiji had asked all Congressmen and nationalists to boycott elections to the legislature and to resign from the legislatures.
One of the important components of the Constructive Programme was the spread of khadi. It became compulsory for all members of the Congress Committee to wear handspun and hand-woven khaddar while engaged in any political activity. Members were also required to spin 2000 yards of yarn every month. Many khaddar bhandars were opened in various parts of the country.
It would provide means of livelihood to millions of people and spread the message of the freedom movement throughout the country, particularly, in the rural areas. The charkha became the symbol of freedom.
When the Non-Cooperation Movement was called off, Hindu-Muslim unity suffered a setback. Communal riots broke out in some parts of the country as the two communities drifted apart. Gandhiji realised the importance of putting an end to communalism before it could cause more harm to the nation. Hence he worked hard to promote Hindu-Muslim unity.
Spread of Socialist Ideas: Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose
In the 19th century, the spread of socialist ideas and movements in Europe was aimed at putting an end to the capitalist system. The movement was aimed at abolishing class inequity and oppression. The success of the Russian Revolution of 1917 led to further growth of socialist ideas and parties in many countries, including India. The Communist Party of India was formed in 1925.
Some of the leaders within the Congress like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose began to preach socialist ideas. They were of the opinion that the Congress programme should link the freedom struggle with the struggle of the working class for a better life.
Jawaharlal Nehru was influenced by Gandhiji and participated in the Non-Cooperation Movement. He was arrested and imprisoned. Later, after his release, when he was on a tour through the villages of UP, he was moved by the poverty and misery of the Indian peasantry. He became a champion of the common people.
Subhas Chandra Bose was born in Cuttack in 1897. He was selected for the Indian Civil Service but resigned in 1921 and plunged himself into the Non-Cooperation Movement. He was influenced by C.R. Das. A great orator, Subhas Bose became the new ideal of socialists and involved the youth in the nationalist movement.
Nehru and Bose both wanted to intensify the struggle against the British. The Congress Socialist Party, formed in 1934 under their guidelines, played an important role in fulfilling the social and economic objectives of the freedom struggle. Subhas Chandra Bose was the first to hail Mahatma Gandhi as “father of the nation”, was regarded by Gandhi as his “rebellious son” and a prince among patriots.
Re-emergence of Revolutionaries: Bhagat Singh and Revolutionary Activities
In 1920, frustration and disillusionment with the Non-cooperation Movement prompted a revival of revolutionary activities in Bengal. Under the leadership of Surya Sen, (known as ‘Masterda’) the new revolutionary organisations adopted radical protest methods like murder of officials and establishment of factories to produce bombs on a large scale. The government ruthlessly suppressed these activities. Gradually, with the death of prominent leaders like Surya Sen, Bhagat Singh and Chandra Shekhar Azad, the revolutionary movement lost its force.
Many leaders were drawn to the ideas of Socialism. Several were imprisoned in the Cellular jail in Andaman. On their release, they devoted themselves to peasants’ and workers’ movements. Some joined the Congress and the Communist Party and played an important role in the freedom struggle.
THE SIMON COMMISSION OF 1927: All-Indian Boycott and Protests
People did not accept the Government of India Act, 1919 as it did not come up to their expectations. A Commission, was set up in 1927 to look into the working of the Government of India Act 1919, and give its report. The Commission came to be known as the Simon Commission after its chairman, John Simon.
The appointment of the Commission sparked off a wave of protests all over the country. The Congress, at its annual session held in Madras in 1927, decided to boycott the Simon Commission. The Muslim League also took the same decision. The Commission arrived in India on February 3, 1928. There were hartals throughout the country and meetings were held condemning the appointment of the Commission. The demonstrators were lathi charged and fired at in many places. Slogans of ‘Simon Go Back’ were raised.
In Punjab, a procession led by Lala Lajpat Rai was lathi charged and he received a fatal blow. The blows also crippled Govind Ballabh Pant for life. Others were also treated harshly for demonstrating against the Commission.
DEMAND FOR COMPLETE INDEPENDENCE: Purna Swaraj Resolution
The Congress session at Madras, presided over by Dr M.A. Ansari, had passed a resolution which declared the attainment of complete independence as the goal of the Congress. Jawaharlal Nehru and S.S. Satyamurti also supported the resolution.
An Indian Independence League was formed by a number of important Indian leaders. In December 1928, the Congress under the presidentship of Motilal Nehru passed a resolution demanding dominion status. Pressed by young leaders like Subhas Chandra Bose and Jawaharlal Nehru, it declared that if dominion status was not granted within one year, the Congress would demand complete independence and would launch a mass movement to achieve it.
Dandi March (1930): The Salt Satyagraha and Civil Disobedience Movement
Gandhiji launched the Civil Disobedience Movement and on March 12, 1930, he started from his Sabarmati Ashram at Ahmedabad with 78 chosen followers for Dandi, 375 km away on the coast of Gujarat, to break the salt law. It was an illegal act because salt-making was a government monopoly and banned by law to other people.
There was boycott of foreign goods, followed by refusal to pay taxes. Lakhs of people participated in the movement, including a large number of women. Sarojini Naidu, the famous poetess, led the non-violent satyagrahis in a march to the salt depots owned by the government. Over 300 satyagrahis were critically injured.
The movement reached the extreme north-western part of India. There, under the leadership of Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, popularly known as Frontier Gandhi, a similar movement was launched by the hardy Pathans. The government took stern measures to crush the movement. The police resorted to lathi charge and firing and about 90,000 persons including all prominent leaders were imprisoned. The Congress was declared illegal.
Round Table Conference In 1930: Failed Negotiations
While the Civil Disobedience Movement was on, the British summoned a Round Table Conference in London in 1930 to discuss the report of the Simon Commission. The Congress boycotted the First Round Table Conference. The Muslim League, the Indian princes, the Hindu Mahasabha and some others attended it but nothing came out of it.
Gandhi-Irwin Pact 1931: A Temporary Truce
Viceroy Lord Irwin launched an effort to make the Congress join the Conference. Finally in March, an agreement was signed between the two. It was called the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. The British government agreed to release political prisoners against whom there were no charges of violence and Congress agreed to suspend the Civil Disobedience Movement. Not all national leaders were happy with the pact. However in 1931, at its Karachi session, the National Congress put a seal of approval on the pact and agreed to participate in the Second Round Table Conference.
Second Round Table Conference 1931: Failure and Renewed Struggle
In January 1931, Gandhiji and some other leaders were released from prison. The British government realised that without the participation of the Congress, no decision on constitutional changes would be acceptable to the Indian people.
Gandhiji was the chosen representative of the Congress for the purpose. The Second Round Table Conference also ended in a failure. Gandhiji returned to India and re-launched the Civil Disobedience Movement but he was arrested.
Repression Continues: The Movement Wanes
Repression by the government became more severe. By April 1933 nearly 1,200,000 persons had been imprisoned. The movement gradually waned off, as there was no one to lead it. It was finally called off in 1934. Once again there was despair in the nation.
In spite of its failure, the Civil Disobedience Movement had made one unique contribution. It had succeeded in mobilising vast sections of people, including women. It had also adopted radical objectives for the transformation of society, which were to be implemented after the independence of the country.
Movement in the Princely States: Praja Mandal and Awakening
There were about 562 states in India, which were ruled by Indian princes. The condition of the people living in some of these states was at times even worse than that of the people living in British Indian states. Many rulers lived in great luxury and made no efforts to remove poverty or improve the living condition of the people. The rising of the nationalist movement led to an awakening among the people of these states and they formed the Praja Mandal.
In December 1927 the All-India States People’s Conference was established to coordinate the political activities of the different states. The Conference demanded that the problem of the Indian states should be treated as a part of the larger struggle for India’s freedom.
Communal Parties and Their Role: The Two-Nation Theory Emerges
In 1915, the Hindu Mahasabha was formed. After the Non-Cooperation Movement was called off, people felt frustrated. There were many communal riots as communal parties took advantage of the situation to propagate their views. As a result of the activities of the communal parties, national integration received a setback. Communal riots of 1920s led to the death of many innocent people. In 1924, Gandhiji went on a fast for 21 days and tried to restore peace. Peace was attained but only for a short time.
The parties based on religion had a damaging effect on the nationalist movement. In 1940 at the Lahore session, the Muslim League passed the resolution for the creation of Pakistan.
The Hindu Mahasabha, on the other hand, declared that only the Hindus in India constituted the nation. This was the most unfortunate chapter in the history of our country as the people of India had developed a rich common culture through centuries. This richness had been a source of pride for the Indians.
The supporters of the two-nation theory failed to understand the historical fact, that the destinies of the two communities were interlinked. They failed to see that problems like inequality, poverty and backwardness needed to be tackled on a priority basis and an India divided on the basis of religion would hamper economic growth. The intensification of communal riots after the Second World War worsened the situation and led to disastrous consequences.
Movements of the Oppressed Castes: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s Leadership
One of the chief aims of all social reform movements was to work for the welfare of the untouchables and the people belonging to the lower castes. A number of campaigns were launched in Maharashtra, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and other parts of the country to remove the social stigma of untouchables. One of the leading figures of this struggle was Dr B. R. Ambedkar who wrote a number of books and journals and set up institutions for the oppressed classes, to promote their interests. He attended the Round Table Conference with the same objective. Gandhiji founded many organisations for the eradication of untouchability. He also set up the Anti-Untouchability League for this purpose. He referred to the untouchables as Harijans and published a journal by that name.
Government Of India Act, 1935: Provincial Autonomy and Federation
Three Round Table Conferences had been held in London to discuss the changes to be introduced in the structure of the government. Ignoring the popular demands, the British government announced the Government of India Act in August 1935.
The Act proposed a federation consisting of Indian provinces and the princely states at the centre. The Central Legislature was to be bicameral. Its powers were also expanded. In order to settle disputes between the federating units, the Act proposed to set up a Federal Court. In the provincial sphere, it was proposed that Burma be separated from India. Two new provinces—Orissa and Sind were also formed. Provincial autonomy was introduced. The Governor was to carry on the administration with the help of the ministers who belonged to the majority party in the Legislature.
The Act failed to satisfy the people, as it was nowhere near the objective of the national movement. The Congress, in its session in 1936 at Lucknow, under the presidentship of Jawaharlal Nehru rejected the Act of 1935. The Congress also pressed upon its demand for a Constituent Assembly. According to the Act of 1935, The Congress manifesto declared that poverty and unemployment were the major problems of India. It used the election platform to mobilise the people on important political, economic and social issues.
The British policy of Divide and Rule had succeeded in arousing communal feelings. In spite of this, the communal parties failed to make an impact in the elections. The Congress was the only party that met with success.
People who had been imprisoned for participating in the National Movement were released from prisons. The bans imposed on newspapers were lifted. The representatives of the people administered the provinces.
Some leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose had not wanted the Congress to form ministries at this stage. The workers’ and peasants’ organisations had grown powerful and so had the influence of the communist parties. They demanded complete independence and wanted to launch a mass movement to achieve it.
In 1939, Subhas Chandra Bose, who had been the Congress President in 1938, was re-elected. Due to ideological differences with Gandhi, Subhas Chandra Bose resigned from the post and later formed another political party called the Forward Bloc in 1939.
INA and Subhas Chandra Bose: The Azad Hind Fauj
The Second World War broke out in 1939. The British government made India a party to the war without consulting the representatives of the Indian people. The Congress ministries resigned in protest.
Subhas Chandra Bose believed that the war provided a golden opportunity for India to throw off the British yoke. He was placed under house arrest by the British government, but he managed to escape in disguise in 1914. Traveling through Afghanistan and Russia, he reached Germany and later Japan.
In 1942, the Indian National Army (INA) or the Azad Hind Fauj was formed in Malaya (now Malaysia) by Captain Mohan Singh with the help of the Japanese. The army was composed of Indian prisoners of war captured by the Japanese. Later, Subhas Chandra Bose took over the leadership of the INA in 1943. He gave the famous slogan “Dilli Chalo” (March to Delhi) and “Jai Hind”.
The INA along with the Japanese forces advanced into India through the north-east. They captured parts of Manipur and Nagaland and hoisted the Indian national flag at Moirang in Manipur. However, with the defeat of Japan in the Second World War, the INA could not sustain its advance. Subhas Chandra Bose is reported to have died in a plane crash in August 1945.
Though the INA did not succeed in liberating India, its heroic struggle created a massive wave of patriotism across the country. When the British government put the INA officers (General Shah Nawaz Khan, Colonel Prem Sahgal, and Colonel Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon) on trial at the Red Fort in Delhi, the entire nation united to protest against it, forcing the government to release them.
Quit India Movement (1942): The Final Mass Struggle
In March 1942, the British government sent Sir Stafford Cripps to India (known as the Cripps Mission) to negotiate with Indian leaders. The mission offered “Dominion Status” to India after the war, which was rejected by all political parties as they wanted complete independence.
Following the failure of the Cripps Mission, Mahatma Gandhi launched the Quit India Movement in August 1942 at the Bombay session of the All India Congress Committee. Gandhiji gave the famous mantra to the nation: “Do or Die” (Karo ya Maro). We shall either free India or die in the attempt.
The British government reacted swiftly and ruthlessly. Before the dawn of August 9, 1942, Gandhiji and all prominent Congress leaders were arrested and the Congress was banned.
The arrest of the leaders sparked off widespread anger. With no senior leaders left to guide them, the movement became spontaneous and took a violent turn in many places:
- People attacked police stations, post offices, railway stations, and other symbols of British authority.
- Railway lines were cut, and telegraph wires were destroyed to disrupt communications.
- Parallel governments were set up by nationalists in places like Satara (Maharashtra), Ballia (UP), and Tamluk (Bengal).
The government suppressed the movement with extreme brutality. Thousands of people were killed in police firings, and over 100,000 were jailed. Young leaders like Jayaprakash Narayan, Aruna Asaf Ali, and Ram Manohar Lohia went underground and continued to guide the movement through secret radio transmissions and distribution of literature.
Cabinet Mission (1946): The Last Constitutional Negotiation
After the end of the Second World War in 1945, a new government came to power in Britain under Prime Minister Clement Attlee of the Labour Party. Attlee was sympathetic to Indian demands and announced that the British would soon transfer power to Indian hands.
In March 1946, the British government sent a team of three Cabinet ministers—Lord Pethick-Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps, and A.V. Alexander—to India, known as the Cabinet Mission. The main objectives of the mission were to:
The Cabinet Mission rejected the Muslim League’s demand for a separate state of Pakistan and instead proposed a federal union of provinces with a weak center. Both the Congress and the Muslim League initially accepted the plan with reservations. An Interim Government was formed in September 1946 with Jawaharlal Nehru as the Prime Minister (Vice President of the Executive Council).
However, differences soon arose between the Congress and the Muslim League over the interpretation of the plan. The League withdrew its acceptance and decided to launch an agitation for Pakistan.
Direct Action Day (1946): Communal Violence and the Path to Partition
On August 16, 1946, the Muslim League called for “Direct Action Day” to press its demand for a separate state of Pakistan. This led to massive communal violence and riots, starting in Calcutta (now Kolkata) and spreading to other parts of the country like Noakhali (now in Bangladesh), Bihar, and Punjab. Thousands of innocent people lost their lives, and the country was gripped by communal tension.
Mountbatten Plan and Partition (1947): The Final Settlement
Seeing that communal harmony was falling apart, the British government decided to speed up the transfer of power. In March 1947, Lord Louis Mountbatten arrived in India as the last Viceroy.
After assessing the volatile situation and consulting with leaders of the Congress, Muslim League, and other parties, Mountbatten concluded that the partition of India was inevitable to avoid a full-scale civil war. He put forward a proposal on June 3, 1947, known as the Mountbatten Plan. The key features of the plan were:
- British India would be partitioned into two independent dominions: India and Pakistan.
- The princely states would have the choice to join either India or Pakistan, or to remain independent.
- The provinces of Bengal and Punjab would be partitioned between the two nations based on communal majorities.
With a heavy heart, the Congress leaders accepted the partition to stop further bloodshed and ensure the stable growth of a democratic India.
Indian Independence Act, 1947: The Dawn of Freedom
To give legal effect to the Mountbatten Plan, the British Parliament passed the Indian Independence Act in July 1947. According to this Act:
- British rule over India would end on August 15, 1947.
- Two independent dominions, India and Pakistan, would be created.
- The offices of the Viceroy would be replaced by a Governor-General for each dominion.
Dawn of Independence: India’s Tryst with Destiny
At the stroke of midnight on August 14-15, 1947, India awoke to life and freedom. Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of independent India, delivered his historic “Tryst with Destiny” speech to the Constituent Assembly:
“Long years ago we made a tryst with destiny, and now the time comes when we shall redeem our pledge, not wholly or in full measure, but very substantially. At the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom.”
Lord Mountbatten became the first Governor-General of independent India, while Dr. Rajendra Prasad took charge as the President of the Constituent Assembly. For Pakistan, Muhammad Ali Jinnah became the first Governor-General.
While the nation celebrated its hard-won freedom, Mahatma Gandhi did not participate in the celebrations. He was in Calcutta, fasting and praying to bring peace to the riot-torn areas, deeply saddened by the partition and the accompanying communal violence.
Summary of the National Movement: Key Phases and Contributions
The Indian national movement was one of the largest mass-scale anti-colonial movements in human history. It evolved through various phases:
- The Moderate Phase (1885-1905): Focused on constitutional methods, petitions, and building awareness.
- The Radical/Extremist Phase (1905-1919): Introduced mass agitations, Swadeshi, and boycott of foreign goods.
- The Gandhian Era (1919-1947): Transformed the struggle into a true mass movement based on Satyagraha, non-violence, and active civil disobedience.
The combined sacrifices of moderate, radical, revolutionary, and mass leaders ultimately brought an end to nearly two centuries of British rule, paving the way for the birth of modern democratic India.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) About Indian National Movement
Q1: What were the main causes of the rise of extremism in the Indian National Movement?
The rise of extremism was caused by several factors including the failure of moderate methods to achieve meaningful reforms, the repressive policies of the British government, the Partition of Bengal (1905), economic exploitation of Indian resources, famines and poverty, the inspiring leadership of Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, and Bipin Chandra Pal, and the influence of world events like the Japanese victory over Russia (1905) which boosted Indian confidence.
Q2: What was the significance of the Swadeshi and Boycott Movements?
The Swadeshi and Boycott Movements (1905) marked a turning point in India’s freedom struggle by introducing mass-based economic resistance against colonial rule. They encouraged Indians to use indigenous goods and boycott British products, promoted self-reliance, and brought ordinary citizens into the nationalist movement for the first time.
Q3: What was the Surat Split of 1907 and why did it happen?
The Surat Split occurred in 1907 when the Indian National Congress divided into Moderates and Extremists due to ideological differences. The Moderates, led by Gopal Krishna Gokhale, favored constitutional methods and petitions, while the Extremists, led by Tilak, advocated boycott, swadeshi, and mass agitation. The split weakened the nationalist movement temporarily until reunification in 1916.
Q4: What were the Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909?
The Morley-Minto Reforms (Indian Councils Act, 1909) increased elected members in legislative councils but introduced separate communal electorates for Muslims, institutionalizing religious divisions. This was a deliberate British strategy to create Hindu-Muslim differences and weaken the growing unity of the nationalist movement.
Q5: What was the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre and why is it important?
The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919) was a brutal incident where General Dyer ordered firing on an unarmed crowd in Amritsar, killing nearly 1,000 people. It marked a turning point in the Indian freedom struggle, converting peaceful protestors into revolutionaries and strengthening the determination to fight against British rule. It also led to the Non-Cooperation Movement.
Q6: What was the Khilafat Movement and how did it connect to Indian nationalism?
The Khilafat Movement (1919-1924) was launched by the Ali Brothers to protest British atrocities against Turkey and protect the Caliphate. It merged with the Non-Cooperation Movement led by Gandhi, demonstrating unprecedented Hindu-Muslim unity. This alliance strengthened the mass base of the nationalist movement against British rule.
Q7: Why did Gandhiji call off the Non-Cooperation Movement after Chauri Chaura?
Gandhiji called off the Non-Cooperation Movement in 1922 after the Chauri Chaura incident where an angry mob set a police station on fire, killing 22 policemen. He believed violence had entered the movement against his principles of non-violence (ahimsa) and feared that continued agitation would lead to more violence, which he considered unacceptable.
Q8: What was the significance of the Dandi March (Salt Satyagraha)?
The Dandi March (March-April 1930) was a 375 km march led by Gandhiji to break the salt law, symbolizing non-violent defiance against unjust British laws. It launched the Civil Disobedience Movement, captured worldwide attention, united Indians across regions and classes, and demonstrated that ordinary citizens could courageously challenge colonial authority.
Q9: What were the differences between the Moderates and Extremists in the Congress?
The Moderates believed in constitutional methods, petitions, and gradual reforms within the British Empire, while the Extremists advocated mass agitation, boycotts, and complete independence (swaraj). Moderates relied on British goodwill and liberal reforms, while Extremists emphasized self-reliance and militant nationalism. These differences led to the Congress Split in 1907.
Q10: What was the impact of the Quit India Movement of 1942?
The Quit India Movement was a mass civil disobedience movement launched on August 8, 1942, with the slogan “Do or Die.” It demanded immediate British withdrawal from India. Despite brutal suppression with over 100,000 arrests, the movement demonstrated that the British could no longer govern India without consent and accelerated the process of independence in 1947.
Q11: What role did the Indian National Army (INA) play in the freedom struggle?
The INA, led by Subhas Chandra Bose, fought alongside the Japanese to liberate India, capturing parts of Manipur and Nagaland. Though militarily unsuccessful, the INA’s heroic struggle created massive patriotism, and the Red Fort trials of INA officers united the nation, forcing the British government to reconsider its hold on India.
Q12: Why was the Partition of Bengal (1905) significant?
The Partition of Bengal was a British strategy to weaken Bengali political unity using Divide and Rule. It sparked intense protests, the Swadeshi and Boycott Movements, and created widespread nationalist consciousness. The strong opposition forced the British to annul the partition in 1911, making it a major victory for the nationalist movement.
Q13: What was the Cabinet Mission (1946) and why did it fail?
The Cabinet Mission was sent by the British Labour Government in 1946 to discuss India’s constitutional future. It proposed a federal union with a weak center and rejected Pakistan. While initially accepted by both parties, interpretation differences and the Muslim League’s Direct Action Day agitation led to its failure, ultimately paving the way for Partition.
Q14: What was the role of the Rowlatt Act in the Indian freedom struggle?
The Rowlatt Act (1919) allowed arrest without warrant and imprisonment without trial, violating basic civil rights. It united Indians across the political spectrum in protest, led to the Rowlatt Satyagraha, and set the stage for the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre and the Non-Cooperation Movement.
Q15: How did socialist ideas influence the Indian National Movement?
Socialist ideas influenced leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose, who linked the freedom struggle with workers’ and peasants’ rights. The Congress Socialist Party (1934) and Communist Party of India (1925) promoted economic justice and redistributive policies, adding a social dimension to the anti-colonial struggle.
Q16: What was the significance of the Lucknow Pact of 1916?
The Lucknow Pact was an agreement between the Congress and the Muslim League, uniting Moderate and Extremist factions. It accepted separate electorates for Muslims, strengthening Hindu-Muslim unity and presenting a united front to the British. This pact demonstrated that despite differences, Indians could unite against colonial rule.
Q17: Who were the prominent leaders of the revolutionary movement in India?
Prominent revolutionary leaders included Bhagat Singh, Chandra Shekhar Azad, Surya Sen, Subhas Chandra Bose (later), and others. They adopted radical methods like bombings and assassinations to challenge colonial rule, inspired the youth, and became symbols of sacrifice and patriotism in the freedom struggle.
Q18: What were the three Round Table Conferences and why did they fail?
The Round Table Conferences (1930-1932) were British attempts to discuss India’s constitutional future. The First (1930) was boycotted by Congress, the Second (1931) failed due to disagreements over minorities and central government structure, and the Third (1932) was inconclusive. The conferences failed because the British refused to accept the demand for complete independence.
Q19: What was the Government of India Act, 1935?
The Government of India Act, 1935, was the longest British constitutional document, introducing provincial autonomy and a federal structure. While it expanded legislative powers, the Governor retained veto rights and the Viceroy continued to control defense and foreign affairs. The Congress rejected it as inadequate and a continuation of British imperialism.
Q20: Why did the Indian National Movement succeed in gaining independence?
The Indian National Movement succeeded due to mass participation across classes, regions, and religions, the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi with his principles of non-violence, the sacrifices of numerous revolutionaries, unity between the Congress and Muslim League at critical moments, and the inability of the British to continue colonial rule after World War II due to economic exhaustion and international pressure.
Conclusion: The Triumph of India’s Freedom Struggle
The Indian National Movement represents one of the most remarkable mass-scale anti-colonial movements in human history. From the early moderate phase focused on constitutional petitions to the radical extremism of Lal-Bal-Pal, and finally to the transformative Gandhian era of non-violent resistance, the struggle evolved continuously, adapting to changing circumstances while never losing sight of the ultimate goal—swaraj or complete independence.
The movement demonstrated extraordinary unity across class, caste, religion, and gender lines. Women fought alongside men, peasants joined lawyers, and workers stood with landlords in a common cause. Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose, Sardar Patel, Maulana Azad, and countless others contributed their unique strengths—Gandhi’s moral leadership, Nehru’s vision, Bose’s daring, Patel’s organizational skills, and Azad’s scholarship.
The sacrifices made during movements like the Non-Cooperation Movement, Civil Disobedience Movement, and Quit India Movement—the countless martyrs who gave their lives at Jallianwala Bagh, Bhagat Singh’s revolutionary sacrifice, the courage of the INA soldiers—created an unbreakable spirit that no colonial power could ultimately suppress.
The tragic partition of 1947, while deeply painful, could not diminish the triumph of independence. India emerged as a democratic republic, committed to justice, equality, and secularism—a nation that its freedom fighters had dreamed of and sacrificed for. The Indian National Movement remains a shining example of how peaceful resistance, mass mobilization, and unwavering commitment to truth and justice can overcome even the mightiest of empires. It continues to inspire freedom movements and civil rights struggles across the world to this day.