The Early Vedic Period: Foundations of Aryan Civilization in India
The advanced Harappan civilization which flourished between 2500–1500 BCE, reached a stage of stagnation by 1500 BCE. Around this time, the Aryans began to arrive in India in several waves. They came into conflict with the indigenous inhabitants called the dasas and the dasyus and took over their lands. Most historians believe that the Aryans were nomadic people who lived in Central Asia. As their population increased, the Aryans were forced to move out from their original home in search of new shelters and new pastures. Those who migrated to India came to be known as the Indo-Aryans.
The Aryans entered India in stages and took several centuries to bring India under their control. They first settled in the Sapta Sindhu region, i.e. the region of seven rivers. They named it Brahmavarta which means the land of the gods. The period between 1500 BCE and 1000 BCE, during which they lived here, is known as the Early Vedic period. The history of India during this period is based mainly on the Rig Veda which was composed during this period. Hence this period is also known as the Rig Vedic period.
The Aryans gradually moved ahead and settled in the Gangetic Valley. The entire region under their control was renamed Aryavarta, which means the land of the Aryans. This period of their settlement, between 1000 BCE and 600 BCE, during which they lived in the Gangetic Plains, is known as the Later Vedic period.
Why Did the Aryans Win Against the Dasas and Dasyus?
With reference to the strengths of the Aryans and the weaknesses of the dasas and the dasyus explain the probable reasons for the victory of the Aryans.
Vedic Literature: Sources of Early Indian History
Our chief sources of information about the early Aryans are their religious literature known as the Vedas. The word ‘Veda’ means knowledge. The Vedas are a treasure house of knowledge and collective wisdom of the Aryans.
There are four Vedas—Rig Veda, Atharva Veda, Sama Veda and Yajur Veda. Each of these Vedas was first composed verbally over a period of hundreds of years and was orally handed down from generation to generation. This continued for several centuries before they were finally recorded in books.
The Brahamanas, the Upanishads, the Puranas and the epics (Ramayana and Mahabharata) are the other important religious books of the Aryans. All these sacred books are collectively known as Vedic literature. They tell us a great deal about the social, religious, economic and political life of the people during this period.
Political Organization in the Early Vedic Period
The Aryans were organized into many tribes called janas. Each jana consisted of a number of villages called gramas. A grama was composed of a number of families. Each village was headed by a gramani or the village headman.
Each tribe had its own chieftain or rajan. The ablest and the strongest man in the tribe became the king with the consent of the people. He protected them from enemies and looked after their welfare. He was also acknowledged as their spiritual leader.
The king ruled according to the wishes of the tribe. He was assisted by a number of officials. The purohita performed religious ceremonies and advised him on important matters. The senani was the commander-in-chief of the warriors and led the forces during war.
The rajan did not have absolute power. Two councils called the sabha and the samiti exercised control over the king. The samiti was a large assembly where any member of the tribe could give his/her opinion on important matters concerning the tribe. The sabha was a smaller assembly of important members of the tribe. They advised and guided the king. Women also took part in these assemblies.
Social Life of the Early Vedic Aryans
Family Life and Joint Family System in Vedic Society
The Aryans lived in villages. Each village was composed of a number of joint families. The head of the family was the grihapati, the eldest living male member. His decision was final and binding on all the other members.
Position of Women in Early Vedic Society
Women enjoyed an important position in society. Monogamy was the usual practice. They were given opportunities for education. Some women scholars are believed to have composed some of the Rig Vedic hymns. No religious ceremony could be performed unless the wife was present. Women could choose their husbands in a ceremony called swayamwara. There was no child marriage and widows were allowed to remarry.
Food and Diet of the Early Vedic People
The Aryans ate simple, nutritious food. Wheat, barley, maize, fruits and vegetables formed their staple diet. They consumed milk and milk products. They were fond of honey and intoxicating drinks like soma and sura. Meat was eaten occasionally.
Recreation and Leisure Activities in Vedic Times
The Aryans were fond of outdoor activities. They enjoyed chariot racing and hunting. They also liked music and dance. Indoor activities like dice and board games were popular too.
Dress and Ornaments of the Early Vedic Aryans
The dress of the Aryans consisted of two garments. The lower garment was an unstitched piece of cloth (like a dhoti) tied round the waist. The upper garment consisted of a light shawl. A turban-like headgear was also worn. Both men and women wore ornaments made of gold, silver and precious stones.
Religion and Beliefs of the Early Vedic Aryans
The Aryans believed in one supreme power, i.e. the creator of the universe. They worshipped the different forces of nature as gods and goddesses.
Indra, the god of rain and thunder, was the most important god. Agni, the god of fire, was next in importance. It was believed that Agni carried messages to heaven in the form of smoke. Surya, the sun god, Varuna, the god of water, Vayu, the god of wind, Soma, the god of plants, Prithvi, the god of the earth, Usha, the goddess of dawn, and Yama, the god of death, were some of the other gods worshipped by the Aryans. All these gods and goddesses were supposed to be different forms of the one Supreme Being. The people recited prayers in praise of these gods for good health, for the birth of sons and for cattle.
The Early Vedic people did not build temples or idols. Their gods were worshipped in the open air by chanting hymns and making offerings (grain, ghee and milk) to them. The yagnas were performed by the brahmanas. The entire family took part in yagnas and other religious ceremonies.
Caste System in Early Vedic Society
The Aryans grouped themselves according to their skills in performing certain jobs. This eventually led to the development of four classes or varnas in the Aryan society.
Brahmanas were the educated priests and scholars who performed religious rites and imparted education.
Kshatriyas were the warriors who protected the tribe from outside attacks.
Vaishyas were the farmers, traders and craftspeople who performed the vital task of providing food and goods for all.
Shudras were the labourers who served the other three groups and did menial jobs.
This occupation-based division of society was flexible. A child born in a brahmana family could become a kshatriya and vice versa. In the Later Vedic period, this system became rigid. One could not change the caste one was ‘born’ into.
Economic Life of the Early Vedic Aryans
At first, the Aryans were nomadic people who often moved from place to place. Later, they began to lead a settled life. The cow was considered very valuable and was a mark of wealth. The king gifted cows to priests. The Early Vedic people seem to have known about agriculture. The plough, which was possibly made of wood, is mentioned in the Rig Veda. The Early Vedic farmer had knowledge of different seasons and their effects on agriculture. The Rig Veda also mentions different artisans and craftspeople including chariot-makers, weavers, leather-workers and potters. Metal workers produced weapons and other objects of copper and bronze. The villages were self-sufficient during this period.
Important Words and Terminology of the Vedic Age
Indo-Aryans were the Aryans who migrated from Central Asia to India.
Sapta Sindhu means the region of seven rivers. This was the region in which the Aryans first settled when they came to India.
Brahmavarta means the land of the gods. The region where the Aryans lived during the Early Vedic Age was called Brahmavarta.
Aryavarta means the land of the Aryans. The Gangetic region under their control was renamed Aryavarta.
Gramas were the villages of the Aryans.
Gramani was the headman of the village.
Rajan was the chief of the tribe.
Purohita was the priest who performed religious ceremonies and advised the king on important matters.
Senani was the commander-in-chief of the warriors and he led the forces during war.
Sabha was a small assembly of important members of the tribe.
DID YOU KNOW?
The Vedic Aryans also brought a new language to India. This language was Sanskrit. Many Indian and foreign languages have been derived from Sanskrit and, therefore, it is called the ‘mother’ of languages.
The Later Vedic Period: Expansion and Transformation of Aryan Society
The period from 1000 BCE to 600 BCE, during which the Aryans settled in the Gangetic Valley is known as the Later Vedic Age. The later Vedas and the Upanishads are supposed to have been composed during this time. The two great Indian epics—the Ramayana and the Mahabharata—were written during this period. Epics are lengthy poems that describe the brave deeds and adventures of warriors. Historians also refer to this period as the Epic Age.
The life of the Aryans during this age has been reconstructed on the basis of information gathered from the three later Vedas (Atharva Veda, Sama Veda and Yajur Veda), the epics as well as the recent archaeological evidences from regions such as Hastinapur and the upper Gangetic Plains. Excavations indicate the use of iron during this period.
Political Organization in the Later Vedic Period
During this period, small tribal organizations expanded and developed into large kingdoms. Some of the kingdoms established by them were Kuru (near modern Delhi), Kosala (Awadh), Magadha (Patna and Gaya) and Kashi (Varanasi).
The kings became powerful and kingship became hereditary. The sabha and samiti lost much of their control over the king. As the kingdom increased in size, the administration became more complex. The king was assisted by many officials who were put in charge of different departments. When a king ascended the throne the purohita performed the Rajasuya yagna to confer supreme power on him. The king was elevated to the position of God’s representative on earth. The Ashvamedha yagna (horse sacrifice) was performed to establish his undisputed authority over the territory through which the horse moved unchallenged.
Did You Know?
The Ashvamedha yagna was performed by powerful kings. After the yagna, the horse was decorated with the king’s emblem and set free to roam at will. The regions through which the horse passed came under the rule of the king who had performed the Ashvamedha yagna. In case any other king stopped the horse, a war ensued and the victorious king annexed the defeated king’s territories.
Social Life in the Later Vedic Period
Classification of Society and Caste System in the Later Vedic Age
The classification of society into four varnas now became rigid and hereditary. The four classes came to be known as the four castes. The son of a kshatriya could not become a brahmana. Caste was now decided by birth and not by occupation. Inter-caste marriages were not allowed. As the caste system became deep-rooted, society got sharply divided. The brahmanas and kshatriyas formed the ruling class. The vaishyas were the artisans, traders and farmers. The shudras were the uneducated workers who served the other three classes.
Family Life and Position of Women in the Later Vedic Period
The joint family system was further strengthened. The birth of a son was welcomed. The position of women declined. They were now considered inferior to men. They no longer took part in the assemblies. Their highest duty was to serve their husbands and take care of the family. However, they continued to participate in religious ceremonies.
In the Early Vedic period there were highly educated women like Maitreyi and Gargi. In the Later Vedic period, however, women were not allowed to study Vedic literature.
The Four Ashramas: Stages of Life in Vedic Society
The life of an Aryan was divided into four stages or ashramas.
Brahmacharya was the first stage of life during which a person stayed with his guru in the gurukul and received education.
Grihastha was the second stage in a person’s life during which he got married and led a family life as a householder.
Vanaprastha was the stage when he gave up his worldly life and went away to the forest to meditate.
Sanyasa was the last stage of life when he renounced all worldly ties and became an ascetic, spreading the principles of religion and truth.
Gurukul System of Education in Ancient India
When a boy was 7 years old, he was sent to a gurukul, i.e. the house of the teacher or guru. He stayed there till he was 25 years old.
Gurukuls were usually situated deep in the forests. The teacher treated his students like his own children and the children regarded the teacher as their spiritual father. The students led simple and highly disciplined lives. They helped their guru in many ways. They cleaned the house, drew water from the well, gathered wood and worked in the fields. Students had to memorize lessons which were taught orally. After completing their education, the students paid guru dakshina or fees according to their means.
Religion and Philosophy in the Later Vedic Period
The gods of the Early Vedic period lost their importance. Brahma, the creator, Vishnu, the preserver, and Shiva, the destroyer, became the most important gods.
The mode of worship became complex. Elaborate rituals and sacrifices were performed. The status of the brahmanas rose because these complicated rituals could only be performed by them.
Hinduism: Evolution and Core Principles
The word Hindu comes from the word Sindhu, the Sanskrit term for the river Indus. The roots of Hinduism can be traced to the Indus Valley culture.
Hinduism was not founded by any spiritual leader. It is a philosophy and a way of life that evolved over hundreds of years. The mixing of social and religious beliefs of the Indus Valley people and the Aryan settlers led to the evolution of Hinduism. The essence of Hinduism is the belief in an omnipotent and omnipresent single force or energy (shakti)—the source of all creation. This creator of the universe is God. This God is known by different names and different forms, depending on which aspect of His force is being worshipped. God is the creator, the preserver and the destroyer of this universe.
There are three main principles on which Hindu philosophy is based.
Dharma means that every person has a moral duty to do what is right and to lead a pious life.
Karma means that people must face the consequences of their actions. As they sow, so shall they reap. Their present and future life is the result of their actions (karma).
Transmigration of the soul means that the soul is immortal and it never dies. When people die only their bodies die. Their souls live on, migrate into new bodies and are reborn.
The essence of Hinduism is contained in the Upanishads which is the fountainhead or original source of Hindu philosophy.
Economic Life in the Later Vedic Period
The Aryans had a settled life now. Agriculture was their main occupation. The occupations of the people basically remained the same but the use of iron and improved farming implements brought about increased prosperity. The people who lived during this period used painted grey vessels which have been found at many sites in northern India.
This period saw the growth of towns and cities as well as the development of trade by barter system.
Impact of Aryan Culture on Indian Civilization
The Aryan civilization is the cradle of Indian culture. The Hinduism of today is based on the philosophy of the Vedas and the Upanishads. The Sanskrit language and Vedic literature act as a unifying force that binds the vast majority of Indians into one nation.
Jainism and Buddhism
The religion of the Early Vedic Period, based on nature worship, was simple and easy to follow. By the end of the Later Vedic period, religion became complex and difficult. Many evil customs crept into society in the name of religion. Costly sacrifices, superstitions, and elaborate and meaningless rituals destroyed the simplicity and appeal of the original religion. The Vedic texts were written in Sanskrit, which the common people could not understand. The brahmanas explained the texts in a manner that increased their own power, wealth and status. The rites and rituals introduced by them led to the exploitation of the common people. Religion became expensive and oppressive. The caste system became rigid. The lower castes, especially the shudras, were increasingly isolated and persecuted. They were denied the right to study the religious scriptures and were not even allowed to recite Sanskrit hymns.
Two great preachers—Vardhamana Mahavira and Gautama Buddha—were born at this time (6th century BCE). Both started reform movements as a reaction to the evil practices prevailing in society in the name of religion. Their teachings led to the emergence of two religious sects—Jainism and Buddhism.
Jainism
Early Life
Vardhamana Mahavira is regarded as the real founder of Jainism. Mahavira was the twenty-fourth and the last tirthankara (teacher) of the Jains. He was born in 599 BCE near Vaishali. He was a kshatriya prince but gave up his life of luxury and comfort. He left home at the age of 30 in search of truth.
Search for Truth
Mahavira wandered from place to place in search of truth. After about 12 years of penance and meditation, he gained spiritual knowledge. Mahavira became a jina, i.e. conqueror of self. His philosophy is known as Jainism and his followers are called Jains.
Teachings
Ahimsa: Ahimsa or non-violence is the first great teaching of Mahavira. He preached that no one should harm any living creature, not even insects and plants.
Sacrifices, Yagnas and Rituals: Mahavira did not accept the Vedas and opposed all forms of religious rites and rituals.
Caste System: Mahavira believed that all people are equal and did not believe in dividing people into different castes.
God: Mahavira did not believe in the existence of God.
Karma and Rebirth: A person’s soul is reborn again and again because of his/her karma (actions). The highest goal of a person’s life was to attain moksha, i.e. freedom from the cycle of birth and rebirth. Moksha could be achieved by following the triratna (three jewels) of Jainism. The three jewels are: (i) right knowledge (ii) right belief and (iii) right conduct, which includes the practice of ahimsa and hard penance.
When Mahavira died at the age of 72, he had a large number of followers. His followers included Bimbisara and Ajatashatru, the rulers of Magadha. After his death, Jainism was divided into two sects—Digambaras and Svetambaras. The Digambaras (sky clad) did not wear any clothes and followed the original teachings of Mahavira. The Svetambaras (white clad) wore white clothes and did not believe in hard penance. The Jain monks who lived and worked in the monasteries established by Mahavira helped to spread Jainism to different parts of the country. They preached in Prakrit, the language of the common people.
Several kings adopted Jainism as their state religion. Jain art, architecture and literature flourished under their patronage. The Dilwara Temple in Mount Abu (Rajasthan) is a fine specimen of Jain architecture. The religious literature of the Jains is found in the Purvas and Angas. Jainism still has a large following among the trading classes in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
Buddhism
Siddhartha, later known as Gautama Buddha, was born in Lumbini near Kapilavastu in 567 BCE. Siddhartha was a kshatriya prince, surrounded by the luxuries and pleasures of royal life. He was married to a beautiful princess, Yashodhara and had a son named Rahul. A happy family life and the luxuries of the palace failed to satisfy him. He was restless and detached.
Search for Truth
The ‘four great sights’ proved to be the turning point in his life. It is believed that once while he was on an outing in his chariot, he saw an old man, a sick man and a dead man. These three sights saddened and disturbed him greatly. Then he saw an ascetic who looked calm and serene, unaffected by the sorrow and misery around him. Gautama decided to renounce worldly life and go out in search for answers to the mysteries of life and death. One night, at the age of 29, while his son and wife were asleep, he quietly slipped out of the house, breaking all worldly ties. He became an ascetic. [Handwritten note: “This is known as great Renunciation”]. For 6 years he wandered from place to place in search of truth. One day he sat down under a pipal tree in Bodh Gaya and began to meditate. On the 49th day, true light dawned on him. He became the Buddha, the enlightened one. He had at last found the cause of human suffering and knew how to overcome it.
From Gaya he went to the Deer Park in Sarnath and preached his ‘first sermon’. For the next 45 years, he moved from place to place preaching his simple message. He died in Kushinagar at the age of 80. By this time there were thousands of people who had embraced Buddhism.
Teachings
Buddha’s religious philosophy is called Buddhism. It is called the middle path because it avoids the extreme harshness and austerity of Jainism, as well as the extremes of ritualistic Hinduism. The main principles of Buddhism are contained in the four noble truths and the eightfold path or ashtangika marga.
The Four Noble Truths
- The world is full of suffering.
- The cause of suffering is human desire.
- Suffering can be ended by overcoming desires.
- Desires can be overcome and freedom from the cycle of birth, death and rebirth can be achieved by nirvana. The eightfold path leads to nirvana.
The Eightfold Path
- Right belief
- Right thought
- Right speech
- Right action
- Right means of livelihood
- Right effort
- Right memory
- Right meditation
Ahimsa: Buddha preached ahimsa or non-violence. He condemned animal sacrifice.
Karma: Peoples’ actions will decide their destiny. Good deeds are rewarded and evil deeds are punished. A person’s ultimate goal in life is to attain nirvana, i.e. escape from the cycle of birth and death. This state of bliss can be achieved by following the eightfold path.
Caste System: Buddha strongly condemned the caste system and preached that all people are equal.
God: Buddha was silent on the existence of God. He stressed moral values such as honesty, non-violence, obedience and respect for elders and kindness to all living beings.
Spread of Buddhism
Buddha preached in Pali, which was easily understood by the common people. The simplicity of his teachings and the principle of equality greatly appealed to the people, especially to the traders. Buddhism spread rapidly in India and other foreign countries like China, Japan, Burma, Sri Lanka, Nepal and Tibet. He established monasteries and an order of monks called the sangha. These monasteries became the centres of education and learning. Buddhism was spread far and wide by monks and nuns. Royal patronage of kings like Ashoka and the establishment of Buddhist universities like Nalanda were the other important reasons for the rapid spread of Buddhism.
Did You Know?
Buddha’s followers could join the sangha, which was the community of Buddhists who became monks and strictly followed Buddha’s teachings. The sangha spread the teachings of Buddha to many kingdoms. The monks spoke Pali, the language of the common people. The monks lived in viharas or monasteries.
Buddhism inspired artists and architects to achieve great heights of cultural excellence. It helped in the development of Buddhist literature. The religious literature of the Buddhists is contained in the Tripitakas and Jatakas.
Buddhism, like Jainism, was divided into two sects—Hinayana and Mahayana. The Hinayana Buddhists considered Buddha as a preacher. The Mahayana Buddhists reverted to ritualism and worshipped Buddha as god.
Decline of Buddhism
Buddhism gradually declined in India for the following reasons:
- Hinduism was reformed and purified.
- The Gupta kings patronized Hinduism.
- India was invaded by the Huns who destroyed Buddhist viharas.
- Buddhism was nearly wiped out from India but it found wide acceptance outside India and continues to be the main religion of millions of people in South-east Asia, Tibet, China and Japan.
Frequently Asked Questions About Ancient India: Vedic Period and Aryan Civilization
1. What is the Vedic Period in ancient Indian history?
The Vedic Period refers to the era between 1500 BCE and 600 BCE when the Aryans settled in India. It is divided into the Early Vedic Period (1500-1000 BCE) and the Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BCE). This period is named after the Vedas, which were the primary religious and literary sources of that time.
2. Who were the Indo-Aryans and where did they come from?
The Indo-Aryans were a group of nomadic people who migrated from Central Asia to India in several waves around 1500 BCE. They first settled in the Sapta Sindhu region (seven rivers) and gradually spread to the Gangetic Plains. Their migration and settlement laid the foundation for the Vedic civilization in India.
3. What are the four Vedas and why are they important?
The four Vedas are Rig Veda, Atharva Veda, Sama Veda, and Yajur Veda. They are the oldest religious texts in Hinduism and serve as primary sources of information about the social, religious, economic, and political life of the early Aryans. The Rig Veda, composed during the Early Vedic Period, is the oldest among them.
4. How did the caste system originate in Vedic society?
The caste system originated from the occupational division of society into four varnas: Brahmanas (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (traders and farmers), and Shudras (labourers). During the Early Vedic Period, this system was flexible and based on occupation. However, during the Later Vedic Period, it became rigid and hereditary.
5. What was the position of women in Vedic society?
In the Early Vedic Period, women enjoyed a respected position in society. They could receive education, participate in religious ceremonies, choose their husbands through swayamwara, and even compose Rig Vedic hymns. However, their status declined during the Later Vedic Period when they were excluded from assemblies and denied access to Vedic education.
6. What were the main teachings of Jainism?
Jainism, founded by Vardhamana Mahavira, emphasizes Ahimsa (non-violence), rejection of the Vedas and rituals, equality of all people, and the concept of Karma and rebirth. The ultimate goal is to achieve Moksha (freedom from the cycle of birth and rebirth) through the three jewels: right knowledge, right belief, and right conduct.
7. What are the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path in Buddhism?
The Four Noble Truths explain that the world is full of suffering, suffering is caused by desire, suffering can be ended by overcoming desires, and the Eightfold Path leads to Nirvana. The Eightfold Path includes right belief, right thought, right speech, right action, right means of livelihood, right effort, right memory, and right meditation.
8. How did the Later Vedic Period differ from the Early Vedic Period?
The Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BCE) saw significant changes including the expansion of Aryan settlements to the Gangetic Valley, the rise of large kingdoms, the emergence of hereditary kingship, the rigidification of the caste system, a decline in the status of women, the development of complex religious rituals, and the use of iron in agriculture.
9. What was the significance of the Gurukul system of education?
The Gurukul system was an ancient Indian education system where young boys lived with their teacher (guru) in the forest, studying various subjects including the Vedas. Students led disciplined lives, helped with household chores, and memorized lessons through oral tradition. This system emphasized holistic education and a close teacher-student relationship.
10. Why did Buddhism and Jainism emerge during the Later Vedic Period?
Buddhism and Jainism emerged as reform movements in response to the complex and oppressive religious practices, rigid caste system, the dominance of Brahmanas, and the use of Sanskrit (a language common people couldn’t understand). Both Mahavira and Buddha preached simple teachings, equality, and non-violence, which appealed to the common people.
Conclusion: The Enduring Legacy of the Vedic Period and Classical Civilizations
The Vedic Period represents a foundational era in Indian history that shaped the religious, social, and cultural fabric of the subcontinent. From the early settlements of the Indo-Aryans in the Sapta Sindhu region to the expansion into the Gangetic Plains during the Later Vedic Age, this period witnessed the development of the Vedas, the evolution of the caste system, the establishment of the Gurukul education system, and the emergence of profound philosophical concepts like Dharma, Karma, and transmigration of the soul. The reform movements led by Mahavira and Gautama Buddha during this time challenged the orthodoxy and introduced principles of non-violence, equality, and moral living that continue to influence millions today.
Together with the classical civilizations of Greece and Rome, the Vedic civilization contributed immensely to the intellectual, political, and cultural heritage of humanity. While Greece gave the world democracy, philosophy, and the Olympic Games, and Rome contributed legal systems, engineering marvels, and architectural innovations, India’s Vedic heritage enriched the world with spiritual wisdom, linguistic treasures, and a unique social framework. Understanding these ancient civilizations provides invaluable insights into the origins of modern societies and the shared heritage that connects us across time and geography.