River Valley Civilizations
During Bronze Age, many civilizations developed around river valley due to varipus reasons. These reasons being abundant water supply; land was fertile that supported substantial growth; agricultural growth provided time for recreational and artistic activities. Rivers also supported means of transport. This led to trade and commerce.
The Mesopotamian Civilization: Cradle of Early Urban Culture
Introduction to the Mesopotamian Civilization
Mesopotamia, which in Greek language means ‘the land between two rivers’, is a broad fertile valley between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates in West Asia. These two rivers run parallel to each other, overflowing their banks during floods and depositing alluvial silt along the lower reaches of the plain. The earliest and most advanced urban culture that flourished on the lower valley of the Euphrates was known as the Sumerian civilization. On the north-eastern side of Sumer were regions called Babylonia and Akkad and the highlands in the north were called Assyria.
Around 3500 BCE, the Sumerians developed the world’s first civilization. This civilization flourished for about 1,500 years and was then absorbed by the Babylonians and finally the Assyrians. Various civilizations, such as the Babylonian and Assyrian civilizations rose and fell in this region. Hence Mesopotamia is called the cradle and grave of many civilizations.
This civilization flourished from 3500 BCE to 600 BCE. Generally acknowledged as the oldest civilization in the world, this civilization came to light as late as the first quarter of the 20th century.
Characteristics of the Mesopotamian Civilization
Social Structure of Mesopotamian Society
The Mesopotamian society was divided into three classes.
- The upper class consisted of the members of the royal family, priests and high officials.
- The middle class consisted of farmers, artisans and traders. The majority of the people were farmers.
- The lower class consisted of slaves.
Family Life and Education in Mesopotamia
The father was the head of the family and enjoyed special privileges. The rights of women were protected. Children were brought up very strictly and boys were sent to schools to study reading, writing and arithmetic. Girls were trained in dance and music.
Town Planning and Urban Settlement in Mesopotamia
The discovery of the Sumerian city of Ur tells us how the people of early Mesopotamia lived. The cities were not as well planned as the Harappan cities but they followed a uniform pattern. Excavations show that the city was divided into three main parts—the sacred area, the walled city on a mound and the outer town. The sacred area had the temple-tower or ziggurat dedicated to the patron god of the city. There were smaller temples dedicated to other gods. This area also had the storehouse as well as the offices. People lived in the walled city and the outer town areas. Houses were built along the streets. Each house had a central courtyard with rooms around it.
Occupation and Economy in Mesopotamia
Agriculture and Irrigation Systems in Ancient Mesopotamia
The main occupation of the Mesopotamians was agriculture. The Euphrates and Tigris Rivers were their main sources of water supply. Flooding was irregular. So they built an elaborate and highly developed irrigation system to ensure a steady supply of water throughout the year. They also built dykes to control floods.
To increase agricultural yield, they invented the ox-drawn plough. They also used the wheeled wagon for transportation of goods. The modern world is indebted to them for these inventions. They revolutionized the evolution of human society. The Mesopotamians are believed to be the first to cultivate wheat. They also grew barley, pulses and fruits.
Domestication of Animals in Mesopotamia
They domesticated animals such as the cow, goat, sheep and donkey.
Art and Craft in Mesopotamian Civilization
The increase in agricultural production and abundant stocks of food supplies freed the population from toiling in the fields. They now had more time to develop their creative skills. Settlements grew into towns and specialized skills such as pottery, weaving and metalwork (jewellery, armour and statues) began to develop.
Trade and Commerce in Ancient Mesopotamia
Stone, timber and metal ores were scarce in Mesopotamia and so these commodities were traded for the produce of the fields. A flourishing foreign trade developed. Food grains and finished products were exported to the Mediterranean countries and Egypt. Seals found in the Indus Valley show that they also had trade relations with India. They kept records of their business accounts on clay tablets. Trade and commerce increased the prosperity of the civilization.
Art, Architecture and Religion in Mesopotamia
Architectural Contributions of Mesopotamian Civilization
The Mesopotamians introduced architectural forms such as arches, columns, domes and vaults in the construction of buildings. This is believed to be one of the greatest contributions of Mesopotamia in the field of architecture.
Their temple-towers (ziggurats) were monumental structures made from sun-baked bricks. They looked like man-made mountains soaring high above the earth. They were many storeys high and decorated with tiles, precious stones and marble. These temples were also used as observatories, schools, granaries and trade centres.
The architects also built big cities, canals and dams. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon is a brilliant specimen of Mesopotamian architecture. It is one of the seven wonders of the ancient world.
The discovery of metal objects, statues, gold and silver ornaments and pottery is proof of the technical knowledge and skill of the artisans.
Religious Beliefs and Practices in Mesopotamia
The Mesopotamians believed in many gods. Every city had its own special god. They worshipped the forces of nature like the sun, rain, moon and stars. The king was the chief priest and the representative of God on earth. In later years, the king appointed priests to look after the temple or the ziggurat. The priests occupied a very important position in society.
The Mesopotamians may have believed in life after death. Drinking vessels, ornaments, weapons, etc., have been found in some graves.
Achievements of the Mesopotamian Civilization
Cuneiform Script: The Writing System of Mesopotamia
The Mesopotamians invented and developed a system of writing known as cuneiform (wedge-shaped). They wrote from right to left with a stylus (a sharp pen made of reeds, bone and sometimes of metal). They wrote on the smooth, soft surface of clay tablets which were then baked in fire and hardened. Each tablet was like the page of a book. Several such clay tablets made a complete book. The cuneiform script has been deciphered and thus we can get important information about the Mesopotamians.
Scientific and Mathematical Achievements of Mesopotamia
The Mesopotamians were skilled mathematicians. They had a special sign for number ‘one’. If they wanted to write five, they would repeat the sign of ‘one’ five times. They counted in tens and sixties. They also used the figure 60 as the unit for measuring time. They were also the first to divide an hour into 60 minutes and a minute into 60 seconds. A year was divided into 12 months. Days and nights were divided into two equal halves consisting of 12 hours each.
Hammurabi’s Code: The Legal System of Ancient Mesopotamia
Hammurabi, the king of Babylon, compiled a code of law dealing with every aspect of human life. This code of law, written on a stone slab, is one of the oldest legal codes known to humans. These laws protected the poor and the weak and safeguarded the rights of women. Severe punishments were given for dishonest dealings, for example, if a house fell on its owner and he died, then the builder was put to death. If it fell on the owner’s son, the builder’s son was punished. Other nations also followed the law code developed by Hammurabi.
Much of our modern civilization can be traced back to the inventive genius of Mesopotamians. Yet the vibrant culture declined and was soon forgotten. The Euphrates River, the lifeline of this civilization, unexpectedly changed its course. The inhabitants abandoned the valley. Winds and sandstorms eroded the buildings and the monuments, burying the treasures of this great civilization beneath a barren desert plain.
The Egyptian Civilization: Gift of the Nile
Ancient Egypt, like other early civilizations, developed in a river valley—the valley of the river Nile. The river Nile was central to the whole civilization and a constant and major influence on its development.
The ancient Greek historian, Herodotus, called Egypt the ‘Gift of the Nile’. Every year, without fail, the river would overflow its banks, transforming the entire valley into a vast lake. When the waters receded, they left behind a deposit of black, fertile soil along each bank. Crops grew easily in this soil and yielded rich harvests. The Nile provided water for irrigation. The Egyptians built an elaborate network of canals, dams, dykes and reservoirs to carry on agriculture on a large scale.
The Nile also served as a national highway and the main transportation channel. This enabled the Egyptians to develop trade relations with neighbouring countries, making their country a land of plenty.
The valley of the Nile was a narrow strip of fertile land stretching along the banks of the Nile. It was about 1,200 km long. The rest of the country was a desert of sand and stone. These deserts served as natural barriers to foreign invasions. So the early Egyptian settlers enjoyed many years of peace and security during which they learnt to build huts, grow crops, domesticate animals and establish a society of their own.
The ancient Egyptians strongly believed that there was life after death and devoted all their energies preparing for eternity. They believed that a dead person lived on in his tomb, which was his eternal home. The more beautiful it was, the more splendid would be the afterlife. This belief inspired the ancient Egyptians to build giant pyramids, magnificent temples, monuments and tombs.
This was the manner in which one of the earliest and most enduring civilizations in history was born which flourished for more than 2,000 years. Archaeological excavations, inscriptions and official documents have helped historians to reconstruct the history of ancient Egypt.
The history of ancient Egypt is divided into three periods.
- The Old Kingdom (approximately 3000–2000 BCE)
- The Middle Kingdom (approximately 2000–1700 BCE)
- The New Kingdom (approximately 1600–1100 BCE)
For about a hundred years (1700–1600 BCE), Egypt was invaded and ruled by the Hyksos tribes. The decline of the Egyptian empire set in with the collapse of the New Kingdom. Egypt was repeatedly invaded by the Babylonians, Assyrians, Persians and finally by Alexander the Great. Alexander founded the city of Alexandria. It later became one of the greatest cultural centres of the ancient world during the reign of Ptolemy, one of the generals of Alexander. Ptolemy was the founder of the last dynasty of Egypt.
From the earliest times, Egypt was divided into two parts—Lower Egypt and Upper Egypt. About 3200 BCE, these were united and ruled by pharaohs or kings to become a brilliant civilization that lasted until the death of Cleopatra, the last pharaoh, in 30 BCE.
Characteristics of the Egyptian Civilization
Social Structure of Ancient Egypt
The Egyptians were divided into three distinct classes.
- The upper class consisted of the royal family, rich landowners, high ranking priests, government officials and doctors.
- The middle class consisted of merchants, manufacturers, craftspeople and the lower clergy.
- The lower class consisted of the peasants. At the bottom of the social hierarchy were the slaves who were mainly prisoners of war.
Archaeological excavations, inscriptions and official documents tell us a great deal about the life and times of the ancient Egyptians.
Family Life and Social Customs in Ancient Egypt
The families were close-knit groups. The relationship between the husband, wife and children was usually close. The father was the head of the family. Women were treated with respect and their property rights were protected. They were more or less equal to men in the eyes of law. Children enjoyed carefree and happy lives. The boys were sent to school and the girls stayed at home and learnt housework.
Wealthy families lived lives of luxury and pleasure. Family outings and recreation included hunting, fishing, swimming and sailing on the Nile.
Food and Diet of the Ancient Egyptians
Bread made from wheat and beer made from barley formed the staple diet of the people. They also ate vegetables, fruits, meat and dairy products.
Dress and Fashion in Ancient Egypt
Dresses were made of white linen. The early Egyptians dressed simply. The men wore a loin cloth and the women wore long, tight-fitting dresses with shoulder straps. Later, their dresses became more complex. Both men and women wore elaborate jewellery, cosmetics and wigs. Men paid as much attention to their hairstyles and complexions as women did.
Shelter and Housing in Ancient Egypt
The Egyptians lived in houses made of sun-baked bricks. The rooms were airy with small windows set high on the walls to keep out the sun and let the daylight enter.
Occupation and Economy in Ancient Egypt
Agriculture and Farming in the Nile Valley
The chief occupation of the Egyptians was agriculture. The fertile soil, abundant supply of water from the Nile and a vast irrigation network enabled them to grow crops throughout the year. Their chief crops were wheat, barley and millet. Vegetables and fruits such as dates, apples, peaches and figs were grown.
Domestication of Animals in Ancient Egypt
Animals such as pigs, cows, sheep, goats, donkeys, camels, doves and geese were domesticated.
Art and Craft in Egyptian Civilization
The craftspeople worked very hard to satisfy the demands and expensive tastes of the aristocratic and priestly classes. There were skilled craftspeople such as potters, goldsmiths, carpenters, weavers, sculptors and painters.
The sculptors carved large stone statues of kings and gods while the artists decorated the tomb walls with exquisite paintings. These paintings tell us a great deal about the lifestyle of the early Egyptians.
Architecture and Engineering Marvels of Ancient Egypt
Architects and engineers built remarkable monuments such as pyramids and temples. The Great Pyramid at Giza is one of the Seven Wonders of the World.
The Egyptians built a number of magnificent temples with pillared halls. The walls and pillars were decorated with beautiful paintings of humans, animals and birds.
Another architectural wonder is the Sphinx, a mythological figure with the body of a lion and the head of a man. It is carved out of a single block of stone.
Medicine and Healthcare in Ancient Egypt
Egyptian doctors and surgeons were renowned for their skills. The advanced and elaborate technique used in mummification or embalming an Egyptian corpse showed their deep knowledge of the human body and its systems. Doctors (mainly priests) specialized in the treatment of eyes, teeth, etc.
Trade and Commerce in Ancient Egypt
Trade was carried on both by land and sea routes. For internal trade, goods were transported by boats and barges along the Nile and by road on camels and donkeys.
For foreign trade, the Egyptians built the world’s first seafaring ships. They exported linen, wheat, glassware, jewellery and furniture. They imported gold, ivory, copper and cedar wood. The king controlled foreign trade. The barter system was used and the medium of exchange was usually grain, silver and copper.
Religion and Political Life in Ancient Egypt
Religious Beliefs and Practices of the Egyptians
The Egyptians worshipped many gods and goddesses connected with nature. Ra, the sun god, and Osiris, the god of the blessed dead, were among the most important gods. The pharaohs were also worshipped as gods. Each god had his own temple and priest. Every city, town and village had its own favourite god.
Certain animals and birds such as the jackal, crocodile, bull and hawk were also worshipped.
The Egyptians believed in life after death. So, they preserved the body of the dead. A dead body was embalmed with spices and wrapped in fine linen. Such a preserved body is known as a mummy.
Food, wine, clothes, furniture, jewellery and weapons were put into the tombs. Pyramids were the tombs of the pharaohs.
Political Life and Administration in Ancient Egypt
The pharaoh was the king of Egypt. He was all-powerful and was treated like God. He was a hereditary ruler and was believed to be God’s representative on earth. He was at the head of an advanced administration. The country was divided into provinces called nomes, each governed by an official called nomarch. The king was assisted by officials. They supervised every aspect of the administration, including tax collection.
The government controlled all the resources. The king gifted large estates to private owners but a major part of the produce was taken as tax for the royal treasury.
Achievements of the Egyptian Civilization
Hieroglyphic Script and Writing System of Ancient Egypt
The Egyptians developed a form of writing called hieroglyphic script (sacred writing). In the beginning, they used picture writing. Each picture stood for a separate word. About 2,000 picture signs have been found on ancient pyramids and temples. Later, they developed a simplified alphabet which had 24 consonants and no vowels.
Invention of Paper and Ink in Egypt
At first, the Egyptians wrote on stone, walls and clay tablets. Later, they used paper which they made from papyrus, a water reed. The word paper comes from the word papyrus.
The Egyptians wrote from right to left using a reed sharpened at the end. They used ink made of soot, gum and water.
Solar Calendar and Timekeeping in Ancient Egypt
The Egyptians introduced the world’s first solar calendar. They found that the average time between two annual floods was 365 days. The year was divided into 12 months, each consisting of 30 days. The remaining five days were used for celebrating religious festivals.
Mathematics and Astronomy in Egyptian Civilization
A highly advanced system of mathematics was developed by the Egyptians to deal with tasks such as the construction of pyramids and other monuments, land survey and the calculation of revenue.
The need to calculate the time of the annual floods led to the development of astronomy. The Egyptians were the first to make an instrument to observe the movements of stars and planets. They also invented the water clock to read the time at night.
Medical Knowledge and Mummification in Egypt
The Egyptian mummies, prepared thousands of years ago, are still well preserved. This is proof of their advanced knowledge of medicine and human anatomy. They are also credited with having made the world’s first medical diagnosis.
By 1000 BCE, the glory and splendour of the Egyptian empire had declined. Foreign invasions and internal revolts weakened the empire and reduced it to a shadow of its former self. Herodotus, writing in the 5th century BCE, observed, ‘There is no country that possesses so many wonders, nor any that has such a number of works which defy description.’
Did You Know?
Cleopatra was the name of seven queens in ancient Egypt. However, only one Cleopatra became famous and popular, i.e. Cleopatra VII. She was famed for her beauty and intelligence. She ascended the throne when she was only 17 years old. She was fluent in nine languages, including her native Egyptian. Both Julius Caesar and Mark Anthony courted her. In 30 BCE, she committed suicide, supposedly from a snake bite, after Anthony’s defeat at Actium.
The Harappan Civilization: India’s First Urban Culture
The discovery of the ancient ruins of Harappa by Dayaram Sahni in 1921 and of Mohenjodaro by Rakhaldas Banerjee in 1922–23, both officers of the Archaeological Survey of India, exploded an age-old myth. It was earlier believed that the history of India began with the coming of the Aryans. The excavation of the ruins of the highly planned cities of Harappa and Mohenjodaro pushed back the history of India by almost 2,000 years. It proved beyond doubt that a highly advanced urban civilization flourished in India about 4,500 years ago.
This civilization belonged to the Chalcolithic Age and no traces of iron have been found. It is estimated that the Indus Valley civilization flourished between 2500 BCE and 1500 BCE. The discovery of Indus Valley seals and pottery among the ruins of ancient Sumerian cities shows that India had trade links with Mesopotamia which was a contemporary civilization of the Indus Valley civilization.
Mohenjodaro means ‘mound of the dead’. It is located on the banks of the river Indus in the Larkana district of Sind (now in Pakistan). Harappa is situated on the banks of the river Ravi in the Montgomery district of western Punjab (in Pakistan).
For many years after the discovery of these sites, it was believed that the civilization was confined to the valley of the Indus and its tributaries. However, later excavations of similar sites proved that this civilization extended far beyond the Indus Valley to many parts of northern and western India. About 2,800 sites have been discovered so far, making the Indus Valley civilization the largest civilization of the ancient world.
Since the principal cities of this civilization were first discovered around the river Indus and its tributaries, it is referred to as the Indus Valley civilization. It is also called the Harappan civilization because Harappa was the first site to be unearthed and the features of the other sites resemble those of Harappa.
Some major sites of the Indus Valley civilization are Lothal (Gujarat), Ropar (Punjab), Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh), Surkotada (Gujarat) and Banawali (Haryana). The two newest sites are Rakhigarhi (Haryana) and Dholavira (Gujarat).
Main Features of the Harappan Cities
Town Planning and Urban Design of the Indus Valley Civilization
The excavations carried out at various sites prove that around 4,500 years ago highly civilized people lived in this region and gave to the world its earliest cities, its first town planning, its first architecture in stone and clay and its first example of sanitary engineering and drainage system.
The Indus Valley cities were very well-planned. The main streets ran parallel to each other, cut at right angles by smaller streets, dividing the cities into rectangular blocks. The main roads were straight and very wide (about 30 feet) and curved at the corners to allow carts to pass easily. The streets were often paved with baked bricks.
Buildings and Architecture of the Harappan Civilization
The Indus Valley people were skilful builders. The buildings were of two types—dwelling houses and public buildings.
Dwelling Houses in Harappan Cities
Large blocks of houses were built along the sides of the streets. The houses, many of them double storeyed, had flat roofs. They were of different sizes. Some were like palaces while others had only two small rooms. They were made of baked bricks of very good quality (they have lasted for 4,500 years).
An average house had a courtyard surrounded by rooms, a bathroom, a kitchen and a well. A narrow staircase led to the rooms upstairs.
Public Buildings of the Indus Valley Civilization
The Great Granary
The Great Granary at Harappa was a large building. Historians believe that it was used to store surplus food grains. There were two rows of granaries. Each row had six granaries. A similar granary has been found in Mohenjodaro. All the granaries were built close to the river bank so that the grains could be easily transported with the help of boats. Near the Great Granary in Harappa, circular brick platforms have been found which were probably used for threshing grain. There were also many furnaces where metal workers produced a variety of objects.
The Assembly Hall
The Assembly Hall was another striking building found in Mohenjodaro. It was a pillared hall with thick walls and 20 pillars made of burnt or baked bricks. This may have been an assembly hall, a prayer hall or a palace.
Drainage System of the Harappan Civilization
The people of the Indus Valley had an excellent, well-planned drainage system. The kitchens and the bathrooms (with sloping floors) had drains connected to the street drains. The street drains ran along the side of the streets and were usually covered. They had manholes at regular intervals (for inspection and cleaning). The drainage system proves that the Indus Valley people paid great attention to sanitation and cleanliness.
The Great Bath at Mohenjodaro
Another important building was the Great Bath at Mohenjodaro. This building resembled a large swimming pool. It had six entrances, a central bathing pool, galleries and dressing rooms. Two flights of steps led to the bottom of the pool. The floor and walls of the pool were made of burnt bricks and made watertight with a lining of bitumen. Water from an adjacent well was used to fill the pool with fresh water and the used water was drained out through an outlet in one corner. The Great Bath was probably used during religious ceremonies.
Characteristics of the Indus Valley Civilization
Society and Social Structure of the Harappan Civilization
Harappan society probably consisted of several social groups: rulers, merchants, traders and artisans, farmers and manual labourers.
Food and Diet of the Harappan People
Wheat was the staple food. They also grew barley, mustard, fruits and vegetables. Milk, meat, fish and eggs formed a part of their diet.
Dress, Ornaments and Personal Appearance in Harappan Civilization
People wore cotton and woollen garments. Two-piece dresses were worn by both men and women. The men wore a garment similar to the dhoti while the women wore skirts.
The upper garment was a shawl worn around the shoulder. Both men and women wore ornaments. They wore necklaces, amulets and finger rings. The women also wore a headdress, earrings, bangles, girdles, bracelets and anklets. The rich wore ornaments made of gold, silver and ivory. The poor wore shell, bone and copper jewellery.
The men kept beards. Their hair was combed backwards and was either cut short or coiled in a knot on top of the head. The women probably tied their hair tightly and used hairpins and combs to keep their hair in place. They also used cosmetics.
Recreation, Games and Amusement in Harappan Society
The Indus Valley people preferred indoor games to outdoor activities. They spent their free time dancing, singing and playing board games with dice. They also played a game similar to modern chess. The children played with various toys like wheeled carts, dolls, animals with movable heads, sliding monkeys, rattles and whistles. The toys were generally made of baked clay or terracotta.
Occupation and Economy in the Harappan Civilization
Agriculture and Farming in the Indus Valley
The main occupation of the people of the Indus Valley was farming. Farmers grew wheat, barley, fruits and vegetables. They also cultivated cotton and were the first people in the world to do so. The land was fertile and the farmers grew enough surplus food to feed the people in towns and cities.
Domestication of Animals in Harappan Civilization
Animals like goats, sheep, buffaloes, elephants and humped bulls were domesticated. Dogs and cats were kept as pets.
Art, Craft and Metallurgy in the Indus Valley Civilization
The Indus Valley people were excellent potters and skilled craftspeople. They made pottery of various shapes and sizes on the potter’s wheel. These pots were generally glazed and painted. They made terracotta female figurines which were probably symbolic of the Mother Goddess. They also knew the art of using metals.
The goldsmiths made gold and silver jewellery, the coppersmiths made utensils and the bronzesmiths made tools, weapons and metal sculptures such as the famous figure of the ‘dancing girl’. They were also engaged in other crafts like brick laying, boat making, stone cutting, masonry and carpentry. Spinning and weaving were important occupations.
Did You Know?
The bronzesmiths were an important group of artisans in the Indus Valley civilization. Bronze is made by mixing copper and tin. The Harappans got copper from the Khetri mines of Rajasthan and from Baluchistan. Tin came from Afghanistan and Iran. The Harappans used bronze vessels, axes, saws, knives and spears. They also made statues in bronze like the statue of the dancing girl.
Trade and Commerce in the Harappan Civilization
The Indus Valley people carried on flourishing trade both within and outside India. They traded with countries like Mesopotamia (Iraq), Persia (Iran) and Afghanistan. Trade relations with Mesopotamia have been proved with the discovery of Mesopotamian seals in the cities of the Indus Valley civilization and Harappan seals in the ancient cities of Mesopotamia. A variety of weights and measures were used and trade was probably carried on by barter system.
Trade was carried on both by land and sea routes. Bullock carts, boats and ships were probably used for transport. A dockyard has been discovered at Lothal.
Seals and Script of the Indus Valley Civilization
More than 2,000 seals have been unearthed from various sites. They are generally small, flat, rectangular or square in shape and made of clay, soapstone and copper. They are skilfully carved with figures of humans and animals such as the unicorn, humped bull, goat, tiger, elephant, etc. These seals were probably used by merchants and traders to stamp goods.
Seals are valuable sources of information about the life and culture of the people and tell us a great deal about their religious beliefs, artistic skills, trade contacts, dress and ornaments.
The script engraved on the seals continues to puzzle scholars and historians even today. Many important facts about Harappan life and culture will come to light if and when the script is deciphered. It has picture-like signs that probably represent words, objects and ideas.
Religion and Beliefs of the Harappan Civilization
Some of the objects found in the ruins help us to form an idea of the religion of the Harappans. No temples have been found. Numerous smoke-stained clay figures of a female deity have been found. This was probably the Mother Goddess figure, seated in a yogic posture and surrounded by various animals is engraved on some seals. The pipal tree was probably regarded as sacred and worshipped. The discovery of a large number of amulets suggests that people probably wore them as lucky charms to ward off evil spirits. Like the Egyptians, they also believed in life after death. They buried the dead together with items of food, utensils, ornaments, etc. Sometimes they cremated the dead and kept the ashes or bones in an urn along with items of daily use.
Administration and Governance in the Indus Valley Civilization
Judging from the excellence of the Harappan civilization it is clear that the cities were efficiently governed. However, we do not have exact information about their government. There is no evidence of kings or queens. Each city was probably looked after by a committee consisting of rich merchants and priests.
Decline and Destruction of the Indus Valley Civilization
The Indus Valley civilization which flourished for about a thousand years, came to an abrupt end. Historians have put forward various theories for its sudden decline:
- Natural calamities like earthquakes, floods or epidemics might have destroyed the cities.
- Invasion by foreign tribes like the Aryans may have led to its destruction.
- A change in the course of the river Indus may have rendered the land infertile.
The Chinese Civilization: Unique Culture of the East
Like the other three ancient civilizations—the Mesopotamian, the Egyptian and the Harappan civilizations—the Chinese civilization also grew up in a river valley. This civilization flourished in the valley of the river Hwang Ho (Yellow River) and later extended to the valley of the river Yangtze.
The river Hwang Ho is also known as ‘China’s Sorrow’ because it changed its course frequently and caused devastating floods, resulting in great loss of life and property. At the same time, the floods deposited fertile yellow silt (called loess) along its banks, which made the land ideal for agriculture.
The high mountains and the vast Gobi Desert cut off China from the rest of the world. This isolation helped the Chinese to develop a unique civilization of their own without any outside influence.
The early history of China is based on legends and myths. Historians have reconstructed the ancient history of China on the basis of archaeological excavations, ancient scripts, ruins of buildings and tombs.
According to legends, the first rulers of China were the Xia (Hsia) dynasty. This was followed by the Shang dynasty (about 1766–1122 BCE), the Zhou (Chou) dynasty (1122–221 BCE), the Qin (Chin) dynasty (221–206 BCE) and the Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE). The country derived its name ‘China’ from the Qin dynasty. Under the Han dynasty, China became a powerful empire.
Characteristics of the Chinese Civilization
Social Structure of Ancient China
The king occupied the highest position in society. Below him were the nobles, merchants, craftspeople and farmers. At the bottom of the social hierarchy were the slaves.
The society was broadly divided into three classes.
- The upper class consisted of the royal family, nobles and high officials (called mandarins).
- The middle class consisted of merchants and craftspeople.
- The lower class consisted of farmers and slaves.
The social structure was rigid. The nobles lived lives of luxury and comfort in large, beautifully decorated palaces. The merchants and craftspeople lived in towns and cities. The farmers lived in villages and worked hard from dawn to dusk. The slaves were mainly prisoners of war and were treated harshly.
Family Life and Ancestor Worship in Ancient China
The family was the most important unit of society. The eldest male member was the head of the family and his authority was absolute. Ancestor worship was common and the younger members of the family showed great respect to their elders.
The position of women was lower than that of men. They were expected to be submissive and obey their fathers, husbands and sons. However, they were respected as mothers.
Food and Diet of the Ancient Chinese
The staple food of the people was millet and wheat in the north and rice in the south. They also ate meat, fish, vegetables and fruits. Tea was a popular beverage.
Dress and Fashion in Ancient China
The Chinese dressed simply. The common people wore loose gowns or robes made of cotton or hemp. The wealthy people wore garments made of silk. Both men and women wore long robes and kept their hair long.
Shelter and Housing in Ancient China
The Chinese lived in houses made of wood and sun-baked bricks. The houses of the rich were large and had many rooms arranged around a central courtyard. The roofs of the buildings were curved at the corners to protect them from evil spirits.
Occupation and Economy in Ancient China
Agriculture and Farming in the Chinese Civilization
The main occupation of the Chinese was agriculture. The fertile soil and an abundant supply of water enabled them to grow a variety of crops. Their chief crops were wheat, barley, millet and rice. They also grew fruits and vegetables.
The Chinese were the first to cultivate tea. They also reared silkworms and developed the art of making silk cloth (sericulture).
Domestication of Animals in Ancient China
The Chinese domesticated animals such as pigs, dogs, cattle, sheep and horses.
Art, Craft and Porcelain in Chinese Civilization
The Chinese were skilled craftspeople. They made beautiful pottery on the potter’s wheel. They were famous for their exquisite porcelain (china clay) pottery, which was highly valued all over the world.
They were also skilled in metalwork, woodwork and weaving. They made beautiful objects of bronze, jade (a semi-precious stone) and silk.
Architecture and the Great Wall of China
The Chinese were excellent builders. Their most famous architectural achievement is the Great Wall of China. It was built by Emperor Qin Shi Huang to protect China from the invasions of the nomadic tribes of the north. It is about 2,400 km long and is one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
The Chinese also built beautiful temples and palaces. Their unique architectural style is reflected in their pagodas (temple towers with multiple tiers and curved roofs).
Trade and Commerce in Ancient China
The Chinese carried on flourishing trade both within and outside the country. They traded with countries like India, Egypt, Mesopotamia and Rome.
The famous Silk Route connected China with central Asia and Europe. The chief exports of China were silk, tea, porcelain and paper. They imported horses, glass and precious stones.
Religion and Philosophy in Ancient China
Religious Beliefs and Philosophical Systems of China
The early Chinese worshipped the forces of nature, such as the sun, rain, wind and thunder. They also practiced ancestor worship.
In later years, three great religious and philosophical systems developed in China: Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism.
- Confucianism: Founded by Confucius, it emphasized right conduct, respect for elders and filial piety.
- Taoism: Founded by Lao Tse, it advocated a simple life in harmony with nature.
- Buddhism: Introduced from India, it became very popular and influenced Chinese art, architecture and literature.
Achievements of the Chinese Civilization
Script and Writing System of Ancient China
The Chinese developed a unique system of writing. Instead of an alphabet, they used pictograms and ideograms (symbols representing objects and ideas). They wrote vertically from top to bottom with a brush made of camel hair and ink on silk cloth or bamboo slips.
Invention of Paper in China
The Chinese were the first to invent paper. It was invented by Cai Lun in 105 CE during the Han dynasty. They made paper from hemp, rags and wood pulp.
Printing Technology in Ancient China
The Chinese also invented the art of printing. They used block printing, where characters were carved on wooden blocks, inked and then pressed onto paper.
Mariner’s Compass and Navigation
The Chinese invented the mariner’s compass, which helped sailors to find directions at sea. It revolutionized maritime trade and exploration.
Gunpowder and its Uses in China
The Chinese were the first to make gunpowder. Initially, it was used for making fireworks for amusement, but later it was used in warfare.
Seismograph and Scientific Achievements
The Chinese scientist Zhang Heng invented the world’s first seismograph (an instrument to detect earthquakes) in 132 CE.
Astronomy and Calendar in Ancient China
The Chinese made significant progress in astronomy. They calculated the length of the year as 365¼ days and developed a lunar-solar calendar. They could also predict eclipses accurately.
Did You Know?
The Great Wall of China is the longest man-made structure in the world. It is so wide that five horse riders or ten soldiers can walk abreast on it. It was built using stone, brick, tamped earth and wood. Thousands of workers died during its construction.