Ancient Greece and Rome: Classical Civilizations of the Mediterranean
Classical Minoan and Greek Civilizations: Origins of European Culture
South of the mainland of Greece, in the Mediterranean Sea, lies the narrow island of Crete. Two Bronze Age civilizations flourished in ancient Greece—the Minoan civilization of Crete (3000 BCE-1400 BCE) and the Mycenaean civilization with its centre on mainland Greece (1600 BCE-1200BCE).
The Minoans led a peaceful and secure life, protected from invasions by their powerful fleet. These peaceful times greatly helped in the development of civilization and culture in Greece.
The main city of the Minoans was Knossos. It was unearthed in the beginning of the 20th century by an English archaeologist, Sir Arthur Evans. The Minoans built large cities with vast palaces and public buildings. Their exquisite fresco paintings, super thin pottery decorated with beautiful patterns, elaborate sculptures, metalwork and jewellery prove their excellence in the field of art and craft. They devised a written script based on the Egyptian and Sumerian models.
They carried on a flourishing maritime trade with the neighbouring states and became rich and prosperous. Sports like bull-leaping were popular pastimes.
By 1400BCE, the Minoan civilization began to decline. The Minoans were attacked by Mycenaeans from Greece. They never recovered and their former greatness became a memory. When the Mycenaean civilization came to an end, the Greek world went into hibernation and entered a period known as the ‘Dark Age’.
Greek Civilization: Rise of City States and Classical Culture
Centuries later, around 800BCE, Greece awoke to scale new heights in artistic and political achievements that ushered in the age of Classical Greece. By about 9th century BCE, new settlements called city states had been established along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. Some of the important city states were Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes, Olympia and others. Each city state had its own government and different characteristic features.
These city states were established by Greek colonists who had left their homeland in search of new farmlands. The expansion of farming brought about a change in the Greek way of life. As their wealth and prosperity increased, they devoted their time and energy to the task of developing their cities. These cities became centres of trade and commerce and eventually evolved into independent city states.
These city states often fought amongst themselves to establish control over the others. At other times, they joined together to form a larger state. In spite of their rivalries, a common history and common religion bound together the people of this region into one country, i.e. Greece.
In the 5th century BCE, the Persians attacked Greece. The Greek city states decided to forget their rivalries and fight against their common enemy. A combined Greek army led by the Spartans won an outstanding victory over the Persian army. The end of the Persian war was followed by 50 years of peace and stability and cultural advancement (480–430 BCE). This period in Greek history is described as the ‘Golden Age of Greece’. The magnificent city state of Athens, under the outstanding leadership of Pericles, became the nerve centre of a glorious classical civilization. Artists, architects, poets, philosophers, historians, dramatists, scientists and craftspeople were patronized by Pericles who was the moving force behind the Golden Age of cultural revival.
Characteristics of the Classical Greek Civilization
Political Life and Democracy in Ancient Greece
The Delian League, a league of independent Greek city states, was formed after the Greek victory over the Persians. Under Pericles, Athens became the leader of this league. Pericles developed the democratic system of government. Democracy is a Greek word meaning power of the people. In a democracy citizens played an active part in the government and the welfare of their own state.
All male citizens (except slaves) were members of the General Assembly. They met once a week in a vast open ground to discuss the affairs of the city. Proposals for laws were made and passed by the people themselves. These laws were carried out by the Council of Five Hundred, elected by the people. Courts were set up and cases were tried by the jury. The jury consisted of people from all classes.
Thus, Athens became the best example of a truly democratic country.
[Image Caption] A marble bust of Pericles
Philosophy and Thinkers of Ancient Greece
Socrates, one of the greatest philosophers the world has ever known, lived and taught during the Periclean Age. Socrates taught that human beings must think freely and behave in a rational manner. His teachings were spread far and wide by his famous pupil Plato. Plato, in turn, had an equally brilliant pupil called Aristotle. Aristotle became the greatest philosopher of his time. Alexander the Great was educated by Aristotle.
[Image Caption] A painting depicting various ancient Greek philosophers engaged in discussion
Religion and Mythology in Ancient Greece
Each city state worshipped its own local gods, but all Greeks believed in the family of gods that lived on Mount Olympus. Zeus was the king of gods and his wife Hera was the goddess of home. The most important of Zeus’s children were Athena (goddess of wisdom), Apollo (god of music), Aphrodite (goddess of love), Ares (god of war) and Hermes (messenger of gods). The Greeks believed that the gods and goddesses spoke to them through their priests and priestesses.
[Image Caption] A Greek painting depicting Hera, Zeus and Athena
Did You Know?
The Greeks in power at that time could not accept the free thinking ideas of Socrates. An Athenian jury found him guilty of corrupting the youth and interfering with the religion of the city. They sentenced him to death and he was forced to end his life by drinking a cup of hemlock, a deadly poison. He died in the company of his friends and disciples.
Social Life and the Olympic Games in Ancient Greece
The Olympic Games that are held every 4 years originated in ancient Greece. The Greeks celebrated their religious festivals with great pomp and show. The original games were held about 2,750 years ago near Mount Olympus in the sacred city of Olympia. They were a part of the festival celebrations. These games became a national festival and were held every four years.
The Olympic Games were discontinued when the Romans conquered Greece. They were revived in 1896 and they continue to be the greatest international sporting event even today.
Art and Culture of Ancient Greece
Literature and Epic Poetry in Greek Civilization
The Greek civilization is famous for its literature. Some of the greatest legends and myths were created around gods and goddesses. The Greeks enjoyed good plays (mostly serious and tragic). A number of fine plays were written at this time. Some of them are produced even today (both in original and in translation). A number of epics were composed at this time. Epics are long poems describing the deeds of gods and heroic people. Homer, the greatest Greek poet, is still remembered for his two famous epics called Iliad and Odyssey. The Greeks also wrote detailed accounts of important historical events such as the wars between the Greeks and the Persians. The great Greek historian Herodotus is referred to as the ‘father of history’.
[Image Caption] Homer / A scene from the Iliad
[Image Caption] The Epidarus theatre of ancient Greece survives till this day.
Art and Architecture of Classical Greece
The artistic skills of earlier civilizations were highly developed but during this period Grecian art reached a state of perfection. Pottery was finely carved and richly decorated with paintings.
[Image Caption] Greek pottery
The Athenians were lovers of beauty. The beautiful and graceful statues are proof of their superb skills and artistic brilliance.
[Image Caption] The statue of the Discus Thrower
The Greeks built magnificent buildings some of which were adorned with sculptures. The Parthenon, a temple built in honour of Athena (the guardian goddess of Athens) on the Acropolis (a hill in Athens), is considered to be one of the most beautiful buildings in the world. Many important modern buildings are based on this model.
Scientific Development and Inventions in Ancient Greece
The Greek civilization is famous for scientific discoveries and inventions. The contributions of Pythagoras (geometry), Democritus (atomic theory) and Hippocrates (medicine) among others continue to influence our lives even today. Hippocrates is known as the ‘father of modern medicine’. Medical students still take an oath based on the Hippocratic Oath which is a set of ideals and rules that a doctor is obliged to follow.
Decline of the Greek Civilization
The magnificent era of Classical Greece ended with the death of Pericles. War broke out between Athens and Sparta. Athenian control and domination of Greece ended with the ultimate defeat of Athens by Sparta in the Peloponnesian War that lasted for about 25 years with short intervals of peace.
In 338 BCE, King Philip of Macedonia, taking advantage of all the interstate fighting, attacked and conquered the whole of Greece. King Philip was a great admirer of the Greek civilization and passed on his love of Greek culture to his son Alexander the Great.
After his father’s death, Alexander, then 20 years old, became the king of Macedonia. He was highly ambitious and wanted to become the master of the whole world. He set out to fulfil his ambition. In 13 years he had succeeded in conquering the greater part of the known world (the civilized world known to man in those times).
Alexander had founded the city of Alexandria near the mouth of the river Nile and established a library that became the largest library of the ancient world. It had a collection of about half a million books.
Alexander’s sudden death at the age of 33 was followed by a period in Greek history known as the Hellenistic Age. The Romans conquered Greece in the middle of the 2nd century BCE. Then they transported Greek culture to Rome and spread it throughout their empire. Thus they saved for future generations a culture that was rich and enduring.
Important Words and Terminology of Ancient Greece
- City states were the settlements founded by the Greek colonists.
- Pericles was the king under whose leadership Athens became the nerve centre of a glorious classical civilization.
- Democracy is a Greek word meaning power of the people.
- Philosophy is the set of beliefs based on the knowledge about life and the universe.
The Roman Civilization: Rise of an Empire and Classical Legacy
Rome is built on seven small hills by the banks of the river Tiber. It is the capital of Italy. Italy is a long peninsula bound by sea on three sides. It is a mountainous country. Romulus was the first Roman king and he ruled for nearly 40 years.
The Romans dominated the ancient world for almost 500 years. By 250 BCE, Rome controlled the greater part of the Italian peninsula. In 146 BCE, the Romans conquered Carthage and became the greatest power in the Mediterranean. This was the beginning of the Roman empire which eventually became the largest empire in the ancient world. It stretched from Britain in the north, across most of southern and western Europe to its southern boundaries in North Africa. The Romans had the most powerful army in the ancient world. The army was organized into legions, which were groups of 6,000 foot soldiers.
Did You Know?
There is a popular legend about how Rome was built.
Numiter, the king of Alba, was overthrown by his cruel brother Amulius. When Numiter’s daughter gave birth to twins, Romulus and Remus, Amulius killed their mother and the twins were thrown into the river Tiber. The twins were fed and protected by a she-wolf till a shepherd found them and brought them up. When they grew up he told them about their true parents. The twins killed Amulius and restored Numiter to the throne. Then they decided to build a city on the banks of the river Tiber. They realized that only one of them could become king and so they sought divine guidance, which favoured Romulus. A jealous Remus mocked Romulus, who in anger killed his twin. Thus Romulus became the first king of Rome.
Characteristics of the Roman Civilization
Each legion protected the borders of the empire efficiently and effectively, ensuring peace and security within the empire. The cultural richness and political strength of the Roman empire was a result of this long span of peace and security.
Roman Society and Social Structure
The Roman society was divided into two groups: (i) Patricians and (ii) Plebeians.
The patricians were aristocratic (upper class) Romans. The heads of patrician families formed an assembly called the senate. Its role was to advise the king. In later years, the patricians became more powerful.
The majority of the Romans belonged to the plebeian class, i.e. common people of Rome. They were farmers and artisans. They were not allowed to take part in the affairs of the government. Plebeians could not marry patricians.
Roman Law and the Justinian Code
The laws made by the patricians were oppressive and unjust. Plebeians could be sold like slaves if they could not pay their taxes. In the 5th century BCE, the plebeians revolted against the patricians after which they enjoyed several rights. To safeguard their interests, they had their own officials called tribunes who could ‘veto’ or stop the senate from passing unjust and oppressive laws.
The Roman emperor, Justinian, collected and arranged all the existing Roman laws into a code. The new system of laws, thus formed, was known as the Justinian code (6th century CE).
The elaborate legal system of the ancient Romans was so well conceived that many countries in the modern world have based their legal systems on the Roman model. The basic principles of the Roman legal system were:
- All men had equal rights.
- Everyone, irrespective of their social status, was equal in the eyes of law.
- No one could be punished without a proper and fair trial in a court of law.
Political System of Ancient Rome
In 509 BCE, the people threw their king and ended the monarchy, i.e. a system of government headed by a king or a queen. The monarchy was replaced with a republic. A republic is a form of government where there is no king or monarch and the country is governed by a group of persons elected by the people.
In 395 CE, the Roman empire was divided into Western Roman empire and Eastern Roman empire. Justinian became the emperor of the Eastern Roman empire in 527 CE.
The Roman republic was an oligarchy, i.e. power held by a few. Two officials called consuls were elected by the senate to govern the country for a year. A dictator was appointed for 6 months only to handle emergencies.
Julius Caesar was the first Roman consul to be made dictator for life. He was succeeded by his great nephew Octavian Augustus Caesar.
The first Roman emperor was Augustus Caesar and the empire he established lasted for 500 years. During his reign of 40 years, Augustus Caesar established peace and stability (Pax Romana), strengthened the boundaries of his empire, organized an efficient and enlightened government and promoted economic prosperity.
He gave the Romans a period of peace and prosperity, i.e. conditions that encouraged the growth of trade, industry, art, architecture and literature. The Romans borrowed ideas and skills from others, especially the Greeks, and patronized architects, craftspeople, writers and artists. The result was the birth of a classical civilization whose impact continues to be seen in modern times.
[Image Caption] Statue of Augustus Caesar
(Accompanied by a comprehensive map of the Roman Empire showing regions from Britain and Gaul to Mauretania, Egypt, Greece, Macedonia, Judea, and Syria, surrounding the Mediterranean Sea.)
Literature and Language in Ancient Rome
Rome produced great scholars, poets and dramatists. Roman literature was greatly influenced by Greek scholars. Latin was the state language. It was later adopted by all European countries. Latin literature was greatly enriched by the epic poems of Virgil, the short poems or odes of Horace, the political speeches of Cicero (a statesman and orator) and plays by Plautus and Terence.
Architecture and Engineering in Ancient Rome
Augustus undertook a vast building programme throughout his empire. Large sums of money were spent on beautifying Rome. Towards the end of his long reign, he is supposed to have said, ‘I found Rome a city of brick and am leaving it a city of marble.’
Among the first buildings in Rome was the Pantheon, a temple dedicated to all Roman gods. It was one of the first structures to be built with a dome. The Forum was another impressive structure in Rome. It was a public meeting place around which public buildings and temples were built.
The construction of arches and the use of concrete made these magnificent Roman buildings strong and durable. Arches supported structures such as bridges and aqueducts. Arched roofs called vaults were used in many buildings. Concrete was invented by the Romans and it provided strong building material for walls and vaults. These buildings have a stamp of grandeur and permanence about them and they have transformed Rome into an ‘Eternal City’.
Roads and City Planning in the Roman Empire
The Roman road system was unique—the only one of its kind in the world. The Roman roads were built so well that some of them (about 2,000 years old) are still in use. Many roads in Britain and other parts of Europe still follow the routes worked out by the ancient Romans. This extraordinary network of roads (80,000 km of major roads and 3,22,000 km of secondary roads), linked together the vast territories of the Roman empire. Communication within the empire was excellent and travel was easy as well as safe.
The city had a geometric layout with streets forming a regular grid pattern. The houses of the upper classes were extremely luxurious. They had mosaic floors, fresco paintings on the walls, proper drainage and well-tended gardens.
Aqueducts and Public Works in Ancient Rome
The Romans built aqueducts of stone and concrete to carry fresh water from mountain lakes to the cities. Bridges were built across rivers and valleys to hold up the aqueducts. They also built underground sewers to carry off the waste water beyond the city limits.
Did You Know?
The ancient Romans built magnificent public bath houses in every town throughout their empire. They resembled a large swimming pool and the Romans came here not only for washing and bathing but also for entertainment and healing purposes. In some places a natural spring provided water in the bath and in other places the water was either piped in or brought to the town by an aqueduct. A public bath was built around three main rooms—a warm one called the tepidarium, a hot one called the caldarium, and a big cold bath called the frigidarium, where they could swim.
Religion in Ancient Rome
The Romans believed in many gods and goddesses and built temples in their honour. Some of the important gods were Jupiter (sky god), Mars (god of war) and Apollo (sun god). The Roman emperor was also worshipped as god.
Jesus Christ, the founder of Christianity, was born in Palestine, a Roman province. After years of persecution, Christianity was finally accepted and made the state religion by Emperor Constantine.
Recreation and Entertainment in Ancient Rome
The Romans enjoyed various sports. However, the most popular sport was the fight of the gladiators. In Latin the word gladiator means ‘sword’. These fights were cruel with a lot of bloodshed but the Romans enjoyed the sport tremendously.
The Western Roman empire lasted for over 500 years. It finally came to an end in the 5th century CE after repeated attacks by barbarian tribes. The influence of the Roman empire continues to this day in the classical styles of architecture, law codes, government systems, in languages such as French as well as in the Roman Catholic Church.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) About Ancient Greece and Rome
Q1: What are the two Bronze Age civilizations that flourished in ancient Greece?
A: The two Bronze Age civilizations that flourished in ancient Greece were the Minoan civilization of Crete (3000 BCE–1400 BCE) and the Mycenaean civilization on mainland Greece (1600 BCE–1200 BCE).
Q2: What were the city states in ancient Greece?
A: City states were independent settlements established by Greek colonists along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. Each city state had its own government and characteristic features. Important city states included Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes, and Olympia.
Q3: What is the Golden Age of Greece and who was its leader?
A: The Golden Age of Greece was the period from 480–430 BCE, marked by peace, stability, and cultural advancement. Athens, under the outstanding leadership of Pericles, became the nerve centre of this glorious classical civilization.
Q4: What is democracy and how was it practiced in ancient Athens?
A: Democracy is a Greek word meaning ‘power of the people’. In ancient Athens, all male citizens (except slaves) were members of the General Assembly. They met weekly to discuss city affairs, propose and pass laws, and elect the Council of Five Hundred. Courts were set up with juries from all classes, making Athens a truly democratic country.
Q5: Who were the three great philosophers of ancient Greece?
A: The three great philosophers of ancient Greece were Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Socrates taught free thinking and rational behaviour. His teachings were spread by his pupil Plato, who in turn taught Aristotle. Aristotle became the greatest philosopher of his time and educated Alexander the Great.
Q6: What is the significance of the Olympic Games in ancient Greece?
A: The Olympic Games originated in ancient Greece about 2,750 years ago near Mount Olympus in Olympia. They were held every four years as part of religious festivals. The games were discontinued when the Romans conquered Greece but were revived in 1896 and continue to be the greatest international sporting event today.
Q7: What are the Iliad and the Odyssey?
A: The Iliad and the Odyssey are two famous epic poems composed by Homer, the greatest Greek poet. The Iliad tells the story of the Trojan War, while the Odyssey describes the adventures of the hero Odysseus. These epics are considered masterpieces of ancient Greek literature.
Q8: What were the Parthenon and the Acropolis?
A: The Parthenon is a magnificent temple built in honour of Athena, the guardian goddess of Athens. It is located on the Acropolis, a hill in Athens, and is considered one of the most beautiful buildings in the world. Many important modern buildings are based on its architectural model.
Q9: What was the social structure of Roman society?
A: Roman society was divided into two groups: Patricians (aristocratic upper class) and Plebeians (common people, farmers and artisans). The patricians held power through the senate, while plebeians were initially excluded from government affairs.
Q10: What is the Justinian Code?
A: The Justinian Code was a collection and arrangement of all existing Roman laws compiled by the Roman emperor Justinian in the 6th century CE. The basic principles included equal rights for all men, equality before the law, and the right to a fair trial. Many modern legal systems are based on this Roman model.
Q11: What is the significance of Augustus Caesar?
A: Augustus Caesar was the first Roman emperor. During his 40-year reign, he established peace and stability (Pax Romana), strengthened the empire’s boundaries, organized efficient government, and promoted economic prosperity. He patronized architecture, art, and literature, leading to a classical civilization whose impact continues today.
Q12: What were Roman aqueducts?
A: Roman aqueducts were structures built of stone and concrete to carry fresh water from mountain lakes to cities. They included bridges built across rivers and valleys to hold up the aqueducts. The Romans also built underground sewers to carry waste water beyond city limits, demonstrating advanced engineering skills.
Q13: What was the Roman road system?
A: The Roman road system was an extraordinary network of 80,000 km of major roads and 3,22,000 km of secondary roads that linked together the vast territories of the Roman empire. Built so well that some are still in use today, these roads facilitated excellent communication, easy and safe travel, and effective governance.
Q14: What is the legacy of the Roman civilization?
A: The influence of the Roman empire continues today in classical styles of architecture, law codes, government systems, languages (such as French, Spanish, Italian), and the Roman Catholic Church. Roman roads, aqueducts, and the use of concrete revolutionized engineering and construction.
Q15: How did Christianity become the state religion of Rome?
A: Jesus Christ, the founder of Christianity, was born in Palestine, a Roman province. Despite years of persecution, Christianity was finally accepted and made the state religion by Emperor Constantine, marking a major turning point in Roman religious history.
Conclusion
The civilizations of ancient Greece and Rome stand as monumental pillars of Western culture, philosophy, and governance. The Greeks, from the early Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations through the Classical Age, gave the world democracy, philosophy, epic literature, and the Olympic Games. Their contributions in geometry, medicine, and the arts continue to influence modern life. The leadership of Pericles during the Golden Age and the wisdom of philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle shaped the intellectual foundation of the Western world.
The Romans, building upon Greek achievements, created an empire that stretched across three continents. Their innovations in law, engineering, architecture, and governance left an indelible mark on history. The Roman road system, aqueducts, concrete construction, and the Justinian Code are testaments to their enduring legacy. The division of Roman society into patricians and plebeians, the evolution of the republic, and the eventual rise of emperors like Augustus Caesar tell a story of political evolution and imperial power.
Together, these classical civilizations laid the groundwork for modern democracy, legal systems, architectural styles, and languages. Their myths, literature, and historical accounts continue to inspire and educate. The Greek and Roman civilizations remind us that the pursuit of knowledge, beauty, justice, and good governance is a timeless human endeavour. Their legacy lives on in the democratic ideals, architectural marvels, and cultural traditions that we cherish today.