North & South America: Geography, Climate, Resources & People Guide

Section I: North America – Location and Physical Features

Overview of North America: Area, Extent, and Key Facts

• Area: 24,709,000 sq km, including Greenland and the Caribbean Islands
• Largest country: Canada
• Highest point: Mt McKinley, Alaska (6,187 m above the mean sea level)
• Lowest point: Death Valley, California (86 m below the mean sea level)
• Longest river: River Mississippi
• Largest lake: Lake Superior
• Largest desert: Chihuahuan desert
• Indigenous population: Red Indians, Inuits
• Languages spoken: English, Spanish, French, Dutch

Location and Extent of North America: Latitudes and Longitudes

North America is the third largest continent in the world. It is surrounded by the Arctic Ocean in the north, the Pacific Ocean in the west and the Atlantic Ocean in the east. In the south, the Isthmus of Panama connects it to South America.

North America lies entirely in the Northern Hemisphere. It extends roughly between $7^\circ\text{ N}$ and $83^\circ\text{ N}$ latitudes. Thus, a large part of the continent lies in the temperate zone. Its north-south extent is about 8,500 km.

North America also lies entirely in the Western Hemisphere. The mainland of the continent extends roughly between $53^\circ\text{ W}$ and $180^\circ\text{ W}$ longitudes. Its east-west extent is about 6,400 km. The $100^\circ\text{ W}$ meridian roughly bisects the continent.

Canada and the United States of America (USA) together cover about 75 per cent of the total area of the continent. There are many big and small islands around North America. Greenland, the biggest island in the world, is located in the north-east.

Discovery and Exploration of North America: From Vikings to Columbus

Vikings probably visited North America in about AD 1000. However, the discovery of America is ascribed to the Italian navigator Christopher Columbus. He landed at San Salvador in the Bahamas, believing he had reached India. Another Italian navigator, Amerigo Vespucci, actually touched the mainland. Soon a number of European nations, like France, Holland, Britain and Spain established their settlements in North America.

Political Divisions of North America: Colonial History and Modern Countries

The French settled in the St Lawrence river valley. The Dutch established trading settlements along the Hudson river. The British settled around the Chesapeake Bay and at other places between the Appalachians and the Atlantic Ocean. The Spaniards settled around the Gulf of Mexico.

In 1776, thirteen British colonies along the Atlantic seaboard won their independence and formed the United States of America. Alaska was later purchased by USA from Russia in 1867.

At present, North America has three large countries—Canada, USA and Mexico—and many smaller ones in central America. Besides, there are many islands in the Caribbean Sea which are now independent countries.

Physical Features of North America: Major Landform Divisions

North America has a variety of landforms such as high mountains, rugged plateaus and broad plains. The continent can be roughly divided into four physical divisions, namely:

• Western cordillera
• Canadian Shield
• Appalachian Highlands
• Central lowland

The Western Cordillera: Young Fold Mountains and Intermontane Plateaus

• The extensive mountain system located in the western part of North America is called the western cordillera. These young fold mountains run from Alaska in the north to Panama in the south.
• The cordillera has roughly three parallel ranges, which are about 6,500 km long and about 650 km to 1,600 km broad. The height of these mountain ranges varies between 2,500 m and 4,000 m above the sea level.
• The Rocky mountains located towards east, make up the greater part of the western cordillera. This is also the highest mountain range in the cordillera. The other important mountain ranges in the western cordillera are the Alaska range, the Coast range, the Cascade range, the Sierra Nevada and the Sierra Madre.
• Mt. McKinley, the highest mountain peak of North America, is also located in the western cordillera.
• In between the parallel mountain ranges, there are a few intermontane plateaus. From north to south, these are the Alaska plateau, the Columbia plateau, the Great Basin, the Colorado plateau and the Mexican plateau. The Great Basin is the largest intermontane plateau in North America. The Great Salt lake is located in this basin.
• Many active and extinct volcanoes are found in the mountain ranges located along the coast, especially in Alaska and Mexico. These volcanoes are a part of the ‘Pacific Ring of Fire’. Numerous hot springs and geysers are also found in the western cordillera. Of these, the Old Faithful geyser in the Yellowstone National Park in USA is very famous.

The Canadian Shield: Oldest Rocks and Mineral Wealth

• The Canadian Shield, centred around the Hudson Bay, is located in the northern and north-eastern parts of North America. It occupies about half the area of Canada.
• The Canadian Shield contains the oldest and hardest rocks in North America. It is generally 600 m above the sea level and is characterized by round hills, lakes and swamps. The general slope of the shield is towards the Hudson Bay. During the Ice Age, the entire Canadian Shield was covered under thick ice sheets. Even today, the northern part of this shield remains under snow and ice almost throughout the year.
• The Great Lakes form the southern boundary of the Canadian Shield. The western and the south-western edge of the shield also has a chain of lakes.
• The famous Niagara Falls is located between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. (The St Lawrence river in this region, is the busiest inland waterway of North America.) The Canadian Shield is rich in mineral resources like gold, silver, uranium, iron, nickel and copper.

The Appalachian Highlands: Old Fold Mountains of Eastern North America

• The Appalachian Highlands, also called the Eastern Highlands, are situated along the eastern side of the continent. These are old mountains, which were once very high. Now their average height varies from 1,000 m to 1,800 m. The major mountain ranges in this highlands are Green Mountains, the White Mountains and the Blue Ridge.
• The eastern part of the highland is occupied by the Piedmont—a gently rolling hilly area which slopes eastwards. Extending for about 1,600 km, the Appalachian mountains acted as a barrier between the Atlantic coast and the interior of North America in the past.
• Many short rivers rise in the Appalachian mountains and flow into the Atlantic Ocean. Some of them provide suitable sites for the development of hydroelectricity.

The Central Lowland: Vast Plains and Great Lakes Region

The important lakes in Canada are the Great Bear, the Great Slave, the Athabasca and the Winnipeg. Other lakes include the Chapala in Mexico and the Nicaragua in Central America.

Section II: North American Climate – Types and Factors

North America extends from the tropical zone in the south to the frigid zone in the north. Thus, the climate varies from tropical type in the south to tundra type in the north.

Factors Affecting the Climate of North America

The climate of North America is influenced by various factors. They are:

• Size of the continent
• Direction of mountain ranges
• Ocean currents
• Prevailing winds

Size of the Continent: Impact on Temperature and Rainfall

Due to vast east-west extent of the continent, the interior parts are not affected by moderating influence of the oceans. Thus, the temperature and rainfall vary greatly in the interior parts.

Direction of Mountain Ranges: Barrier Effect on Winds

The Rocky and the Appalachian mountains run close to the western and eastern coasts respectively, in nearly north-south direction. Hence, the winds which come from the Pacific and the Atlantic oceans are unable to reach the central lowland. On the other hand, this lowland is open to the cold winds which come from the polar area in the north and the warm winds which blow from the Gulf of Mexico in the south. These winds influence the climatic conditions in the central lowland.

Ocean Currents: Gulf Stream, Labrador Current, and California Current

The warm Gulf Stream which flows along the eastern coast of North America increases the temperature and amount of precipitation in the eastern region. On the other hand, the cold California current which flows along the western coast decreases the temperature and amount of precipitation of the western region.

Moreover, the cold Labrador current produces a freezing climate along the eastern coast of Canada. It also produces an area of dense fog near Newfoundland after meeting the warm Gulf Stream.

Prevailing Winds: Westerlies and Trade Winds

The northern part of North America is under the influence of the Westerlies. In this part, the north-western coast receives more rainfall than the north-eastern coast. The southern part is under the influence of the Trade winds. In this part, the south-eastern coast receives more rainfall than the south-western coast.

Temperature Conditions Across North America

The summer season is hot, except in the northern part. However, the coastal areas through which cold currents flow are less hot than the interior. The winter season is cold over much of North America. During this time, the temperature falls below freezing point in the northern and central parts. The temperature decreases from south to north. Severe frost is experienced in the north-eastern part of this continent.

Distribution of Rainfall in North America

If you compare the physical map and the annual rainfall map (see Map 7.3) of North America, you will notice that the regions on the leeward sides of the Rocky mountains and the Appalachian Highlands are the rainshadow areas. (The Westerlies and the Trade winds bring heavy rainfall on the north-western and south-eastern coastal areas respectively. In general, the amount of rainfall decreases from the coastal areas to the interior. Severe droughts are experienced in the south-western part. The distribution of average annual rainfall can be classified under the following four categories.

Areas Receiving More Than 100 cm Rainfall

The coastal areas and the lower basin of the Mississippi river, West Indies, parts of Central America and the north-west Pacific coast receive more than 100 cm rainfall.

Areas Receiving 50 cm to 100 cm Rainfall

The eastern belt from Canada to Mexico and the Rocky mountains receive 50 cm to 100 cm rainfall. These regions are located towards the eastern and western sides of the areas which receive more than 100 cm rainfall.

Areas Receiving 25 cm to 50 cm Rainfall

The regions in the western half of North America including the Great Plains and the western part of the Prairie receive 25 cm to 50 cm rainfall.

Areas Receiving Less Than 25 cm Rain

The south-western parts of USA and the adjoining areas of Mexico receive less than 25 cm rain. Most of these areas are dry deserts. The deserts in the northern parts of Canada and Greenland also receive very less rainfall.

Hurricanes in North America: Tropical Cyclones and Their Impact

From June to November the tropical water of the Atlantic Ocean is the warmest. This results in the formation of tropical cyclones called hurricanes. They affect eastern USA, the Caribbean and Central America and cause large-scale destruction of life and property. Hurricanes Katrina, Rita and Wilma are some of the major hurricanes that struck North America and caused large-scale destruction in recent times.

Climatic Types of North America

North America experiences the following types of climate (see Map 7.4).

• Tundra climate
• Taiga climate
• Cool temperate (east coast) climate
• Cool temperate (west coast) climate
• Cool temperate (continental) climate
• Tropical climate
• Mediterranean climate
• Desert climate

Tundra Climate: Cold Winters and Permafrost Conditions

Tundra climate is found in the northern parts of the continent; in Alaska, Canada and Greenland. It is characterized by very long and cold winters and short and cool summers. The temperature remains below freezing point for major part of the year. The ground is covered with snow for about nine months in a year. Precipitation mostly occurs in the form of snowfall.

Taiga Climate: Long Winters and Cool Summers

Taiga climate is found towards the south of the tundra climate. It is characterized by long and cold winters and cool summers. However, the summers are warmer than in the tundra climate. Rainfall occurs during the summer season while heavy snowfall is common during the winter season.

Cool Temperate (East Coast) Climate: Influence of Gulf Stream

Cool temperate (east coast) climate is found in areas east of the St Lawrence river and the Great Lakes. In this type of climate, winters are generally cold, but summers are warm due to the influence of the Gulf Stream. The amount of rainfall is moderate and it mostly occurs during the summer season.

Cool Temperate (West Coast) Climate: Marine Type with Winter Rainfall

Cool temperate (west coast) climate, also called Marine type of climate, is found along the north-western coast. This region is under the influence of the warm North Pacific Drift which prevents freezing of the sea in the coastal areas. Thus, this region is comparatively warm. This climate is marked by rainfall during the winter season but the summer season is not absolutely dry.

Cool Temperate (Continental) Climate: Hot Summers and Cold Winters

Cool temperate (continental) climate is found in the interior parts, which are far away from the influence of the oceans. It is characterized by cold winters and hot summers. Limited rainfall occurs during the summer season which decreases from east to west.

Tropical Climate: Hot and Wet Conditions

Tropical climate is found in the southern part of Mexico, Central America and West Indies. It is characterized by hot summers and warm winters. This region actually experiences hot and wet climate almost throughout the year which is characteristic of the Monsoon climate.

Mediterranean Climate: Dry Summers and Wet Winters

Mediterranean climate is found in a narrow belt along the south-western coast, mostly in the state of California in USA. It is characterized by hot and dry summers and cool and wet winters. Rainfall mostly occurs during the winter season from the Westerlies. The summer season is absolutely dry.

Desert Climate: Arid Conditions with Extreme Temperatures

Desert climate is found in the western parts, especially in the Colorado plateau and northern Mexico. It is characterized by very hot summers, cool winters and no rainfall almost throughout the year. Sometimes, the night temperature during winter season may reach below freezing point.

Section III: Natural Vegetation and Wildlife of North America

When the first group of human settlers came to North America, most of the area was under forests, except the north and the north-eastern parts. At present, the natural vegetation is still unchanged in some parts, while human activities have greatly influenced it in many other parts. The following types of natural vegetation are found in North America.

• Tundra vegetation
• Taiga forests
• Cool temperate forests
• Warm temperate forests
• Temperate grasslands
• Tropical forests
• Mediterranean forests
• Desert vegetation

Tundra Vegetation: Treeless Region with Permafrost

• Tundra vegetation is found in the northern parts from Alaska to Labrador peninsula.
• In this region, the land is under snow and ice cover for about eight months in a year.
• Thus, the subsoil remains permanently frozen which is called permafrost.
• During the short cool summer season, only grasses, mosses and lichens grow. It is a treeless region, but some bushes and dwarf trees grow along its southern margins. This region is the home of reindeer (caribou), polar bear and musk ox.

Taiga Forests: Evergreen Coniferous Forests of Canada

• Taiga forests are found in a broad belt south of the tundra vegetation. This belt stretches from the Pacific Ocean in the west to the Atlantic Ocean in the east.
• These forests, that mainly comprise evergreen coniferous trees, are found in Canada.
• The important trees found here are pine, spruce, birch, fir, maple and balsam. These are softwood trees and the wood is widely used to make sleepers and furniture.
• They also provide pulp for paper and newsprint industry. The taiga forests are home to fur-bearing animals like mink, silver fox, moose, elk and bear.

Cool Temperate Forests: Mixed Forests of Coniferous and Deciduous Trees

• Cool temperate forests are mixed forests of coniferous and deciduous trees. They are found in south-east Canada and north-east USA.
• The deciduous forests have hardwood trees.
• The important trees found in these forests are beech, birch, maple, oak and chestnut.
• Large areas of these forests have been cleared to grow crops.
• The animals found in these mixed forests are deer, moose, beaver and bear.

Warm Temperate Forests: Forests Along the Gulf Coast

• Warm temperate forests are found along the gulf coast of USA including Florida.
• The main trees found in these forests are oak, pine, chestnut, cypress and elm.
• The coastal areas have marshes and swamps where mangrove forests are found.
• Palm trees are also found in the coastal areas. Most of these forests have been cleared to provide land for agriculture.
• The animals found in these forests are deer, raccoon, opossum and wild turkey. Alligators and snakes are found in the marshes and swamps.

Temperate Grasslands (Prairies): The Breadbasket of North America

• Temperate grasslands, also called Prairies, are found in the interior of the continent. They extend from the coniferous forest belt in the north, through the central lowland to the Gulf of Mexico in the south.
• Due to scanty rainfall during the summer season, only tall grasses grow here. The grasses are used to feed cattle.
• These grasslands are now extensively used for wheat cultivation and cattle rearing.
• This region was the home of the American bison which has now become endangered. Other animals found here are prairie dog, rabbit, coyote and gopher.

Tropical Forests: Evergreen Forests of Central America

• Tropical forests are found in Central America, West Indies and parts of Mexico.
• This region is hot and wet almost throughout the year. Thus, evergreen trees like mahogany, ebony, ironwood and logwood are found here.
• The lowlands and the lower slopes of the mountains have been cleared for farming.
• Banana, sugarcane, tobacco, coffee and cocoa are grown in plantations. This region is rich in wildlife such as monkeys, reptiles, birds and insects.

Mediterranean Forests: Drought-Resistant Vegetation of California

• Mediterranean forests are found along the west coast of California state.
• The evergreen trees and shrubs which can withstand a dry summer season such as olive, oak, cork, orange, magnolia and laurel are found in these forests.
• Most of the trees in these forests have thick barks, long leaves and deep roots.
• The giant redwood tree is peculiar to this region. Not many animals are found here as the forests are cut to provide land for agriculture.

Desert Vegetation: Cacti and Thorny Shrubs in Arid Regions

• Desert vegetation is found in the basins and plateaus sheltered by the eastern and western mountain ranges in the south-western part.
• Due to extreme climate and practically no rainfall, only cactus, short grass, thorny bush and scrub grow here.
• The animals found here are scorpions, lizards, snakes and desert foxes.

Section IV: North America – Resources, Agriculture, Industry, and People

Forest Resources of North America: Timber, Pulp, and Paper

Nature has gifted North America with a large variety of natural resources such as a stimulating climate, vast fertile plains, extensive grasslands, valuable forests, abundant mineral and power resources and extensive fishing grounds along the coasts. The North Americans, through scientific research, have developed suitable techniques for the exploitation, development and utilization of natural resources.

The forests of North America provide valuable timber and a variety of other important forest products. They also provide occupation to millions of people of Canada and USA. 200 cm rainfall is mainly used to make pulp and paper. The trees also provide timber as building material and cellulose to make rayon, resin and turpentine.

The wood from spruce and pine trees is used to make pulp, paper and newsprint. The wood of oak and willow trees is used to make furniture. The sap of the maple tree is widely used to make sugar.

The hard wood from the tropical forests is widely used to make railway sleepers. The wood of mahogany and cedar is mainly used to make cigar boxes in Cuba.

In North America, forestry and lumbering industry is well-planned and highly developed. When mature trees are cut for commercial purposes, new ones are planted to replace them. Forests are farmed like crops so that they become a permanent source of timber.

Agriculture in North America: Extensive Farming and Major Crops

Agriculture is one of the most important economic activities of the people who live in the central lowland. Factors such as large farms, favourable climate, rich fertile soils, adequate irrigation facilities, extensive use of farm machines, chemical fertilizers, pesticides and modern scientific methods are responsible for the development of agriculture.

Features of Extensive Agriculture in North America

Extensive agriculture is widely practised. The main features of such agriculture are:

• The size of the farms is large and ranges between 2,000 and 20,000 hectares.
• All agricultural operations are done using machines.
• Only one crop, i.e. either wheat or corn, is grown on a large scale.
• Latest scientific techniques are used.
• Chemical fertilizers and pesticides are widely used.
• The average yield per hectare is low.
• The labour force is small. Thus, per capita production is high.
• The farms are owned by farmers and there is no tenant system.

Cereal Crops: Wheat, Maize, Barley, and Oats

The main cereal crops grown in North America are wheat, maize, oats, barley and rice. Wheat is extensively grown in the Prairies in Canada and USA. These two countries are the largest producers of wheat in the world.

Maize, also called corn, is the original food crop and the second important cereal crop in North America. The land under corn cultivation is more than all other cereals put together. Hence, this region is called the corn belt. It is the staple food in Mexico. It is widely used to feed and fatten cattle and pigs in USA. It is also processed into starch and alcohol.

Barley and oats are temperate crops. They are grown in areas unsuitable for wheat and corn cultivation. Barley is used to manufacture beer, while oats are used as fodder for cattle.

Cash Crops: Cotton, Tobacco, Sugarcane, and Coffee

The main cash crops grown are cotton, tobacco, sugarcane, coffee, cocoa, banana and oilseeds. Cotton is a tropical crop. It is grown in areas lying south of the Prairie, i.e. the southern part of the Mississippi basin. This region is called the cotton belt. The USA and Mexico are the leading cotton producers and specialize in the cultivation of long staple cotton. North America is the largest producer of cotton in the world.

Tobacco, also a tropical crop, is native to North America. The tobacco belt is towards the north-east of the cotton belt. It is also grown in Mexico, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Jamaica and Honduras.

Sugarcane is mostly grown along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, in West Indies and in some countries in Central America. Cuba is known as the ‘Sugar Bowl of the World’ and is also an important exporter.

Coffee, cocoa and banana are grown in many parts of Central America and West Indies. Groundnuts and soyabeans are the main oilseeds grown in North America. Many types of fruits and vegetables are also grown in this continent.

Cattle Rearing: Beef and Dairy Production

Cattle rearing is done in the extensive grasslands and mountain pastures. The drier parts of the Prairie are most suitable. The dairy cattle are reared in the humid parts, while the meat cattle are reared in the drier parts. Cattle are reared for beef, milk and leather. North America is one of the leading producers of meat and milk in the world.

Fisheries: Grand Banks and Major Fishing Areas

The broad and shallow seas and gulfs along the coast are rich in plankton. Thus, these areas, called fishing banks, have vast reserves of fish. The region around Newfoundland, known as the Grand Banks, is one of the biggest fishing banks in the world. Cod, halibut, herring and mackerel are caught in this area, whereas sardines and lobsters are caught from the rocky shores. Tuna and salmon are found along the Pacific coast. Most of the fishes caught are processed and tinned. Whales, seals, oysters and sponges are also caught in the open seas. USA is the third largest fishing country in the world.

Minerals and Power Resources: Coal, Iron Ore, Petroleum, and More

North America has vast deposits of iron ore, copper, lead, gold, platinum, silver, coal and petroleum. The Canadian Shield is rich in iron, platinum, gold, nickel and copper.

• USA is the second largest producer of iron ore in the world. The area around Lake Superior is the leading producer of high grade iron ore. The eastern part of the Canadian Shield and the southern part of the Appalachian mountains are also important producers.
• North America has huge reserves of coal. The Appalachian region has rich deposits of high-grade coking coal. Pennsylvania in USA is a leading coal-producing region. It is also mined in many other parts of USA and Canada.
• The central lowland and the Gulf Plains in North America have rich deposits of petroleum and natural gas. Other important regions are Alaska, western Canada and eastern Mexico. USA is among the leading producers of petroleum in the world.
• The Lake Superior region also produces large quantities of gold, nickel, platinum, copper and silver. The Rocky mountains are known for the production of copper, tin, uranium, gold and lead. This region also produces mineral oil, natural gas and rock phosphate.
• The largest deposits of lead and zinc in the world are found in British Columbia in Canada.
• Mexico is the largest producer of silver in the world.
• The continent also has rich deposits of potash, phosphates and sulphur, which are used to make chemical fertilizers.

North America is rich in water power resources. Hydroelectricity is produced on a large scale in many parts of the continent. A number of dams have been built across rivers like Tennessee, Colorado and Columbia. The Niagara Falls, located between the Erie and Ontario lakes, is a great source of water power.

Industries in North America: Manufacturing Belt and Key Sectors

An abundance of minerals and power resources have provided the base for the development of industries in North America, especially in USA and Canada. Agriculture also provides a large variety of raw materials for the development of agro-based industries.

The north-eastern part of North America is among the most developed manufacturing belts in the world. The main industries located here are flour milling, wood pulp, paper, newsprint, textiles, iron and steel, automobiles and engineering goods. Canada is the largest producer of pulp and paper in the world.

Around the Great Lakes region, heavy industries such as transport equipment, agricultural machinery and armaments are located. In recent years, light manufacturing and agro-based industries have developed in Central America. Fertilizers, paints, dyes, chemicals, plastics, petrochemicals, synthetic fibres, synthetic rubber and pharmaceuticals are widely produced in USA, Canada and Mexico.

Meat packing industry is highly developed. Cuba is known for its sugar and cigar industry all over the world. Canada and USA have developed electronics, electrical goods, computer hardware and software industries. They also lead in the production and consumption of consumer goods.

People of North America: Indigenous Population and Migration Patterns

For a long time, North America remained uninhabited. The first people, who settled here probably came from Siberia across the narrow Bering Strait. They included the Red Indians and the Eskimos.

The Red Indians and the Eskimos lived almost all over the continent and followed a traditional way of life. Their main occupation was hunting and fishing. Now most of them have migrated to cities and adopted the modern lifestyle. Some Eskimos still live in the northern parts of Canada.

The Europeans came here in search of gold. Most of them are migrants who came from Britain, Spain, the Netherlands, Italy, France and Portugal. They entered this continent from different routes and built their colonies in different parts.

The Spanish colonized the area around the Gulf of Mexico, the French settled along the St Lawrence and Mississippi rivers, and the British established their colony on the eastern coast. Another group of people, who were brought here as slaves, were the Negroes from Africa. They were brought to work on the cotton plantations of USA.

Population Distribution in North America

The total population of North America is about 550 million. The average density is about 22 persons per sq km. The distribution is highly uneven. Parts of the western mountains, deserts, central plains and the northern part are sparsely populated. The average density of population in Canada is very low. It is about three persons per sq km. The eastern coast and the central lowland are among the few regions which have a high population density. Mexico City is the most populous city of North America. Most people live in cities. Mild climate, fertile soil and vast reserves of minerals and power resources are the reasons for high density of population in these areas.

Transport in North America: Roadways, Railways, Waterways, and Airways

After First World War, North America has developed one of the finest systems of transport in the world. Besides, the tundra and the taiga regions, the continent is well linked by all means of transport.

Roadways: Freeways and Expressways

North America has excellent and wide surfaced roads. Many long-distance roads are broad enough to have four or six lanes in one direction. Such roads are called freeways or superways or expressways. Now even the barren areas in Alaska and northern Canada are connected with all-weather roads.

Railways: Transcontinental Networks

All major town and cities in the main agricultural and industrial areas are linked by an efficient network of railways. Many transcontinental railways run from the east to the west coast in USA and Canada. The railway network is mainly concentrated in the eastern part of the continent. The railways carry more goods than passengers.

Central America and West Indies are yet to develop an efficient railway system.

Waterways: St Lawrence River, Great Lakes, and Mississippi River

Waterways are an important means of transportation. The St Lawrence river along with the Great Lakes and the Mississippi river are the important waterways. The St Lawrence river connects the Great Lakes with the Atlantic Ocean. It is the busiest inland waterway in the world. These waterways are mostly used to transport bulky goods. North America is well connected with other parts of the world through sea routes. There are a large number of seaports, but those on the east coast are the busiest.

Panama Canal: Connecting Atlantic and Pacific Oceans

Panama Canal (Transportation of goods from the east coast of North America to the west coast was earlier a serious problem. The ships had to travel via the southern tip of South America. Thus, to facilitate the movement of goods a canal was constructed at the Isthmus of Panama by USA in 1914. This is the Panama Canal which joins the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean.)

Airways: Extensive Air Connectivity

All cities of North America are connected by airways. Most of the international airlines link the continent with the rest of the world. Air services are readily available even to the remote settlements in Alaska and northern Canada.

Frequently Asked Questions About North America

What are the physical divisions of North America?

North America is divided into four major physical divisions: the Western Cordillera (young fold mountains including the Rockies), the Canadian Shield (oldest rocks, rich in minerals), the Appalachian Highlands (old fold mountains in the east), and the Central Lowland (vast plains and Great Lakes region). Each division has distinct geological features and resources.

What are the major mountain ranges in North America?

The major mountain ranges in North America include the Rocky Mountains (part of the Western Cordillera), the Alaska Range, the Coast Range, the Cascade Range, the Sierra Nevada, the Sierra Madre, and the Appalachian Highlands (including Green Mountains, White Mountains, and Blue Ridge). Mount McKinley (Denali) in Alaska is the highest peak.

What factors influence the climate of North America?

The climate of North America is influenced by the size of the continent, direction of mountain ranges (Rockies and Appalachians running north-south), ocean currents (warm Gulf Stream, cold California and Labrador currents), and prevailing winds (Westerlies in the north, Trade winds in the south). These factors create diverse climatic conditions across the continent.

What are the different climatic types found in North America?

North America experiences various climatic types including Tundra climate (northern parts), Taiga climate (subarctic), Cool Temperate East Coast climate (influenced by Gulf Stream), Cool Temperate West Coast climate (marine type), Cool Temperate Continental climate (interior), Tropical climate (southern Mexico and Central America), Mediterranean climate (California), and Desert climate (south-western USA).

What are the major natural vegetation types in North America?

The major natural vegetation types in North America include Tundra vegetation (northern, treeless with permafrost), Taiga forests (evergreen coniferous), Cool temperate forests (mixed coniferous and deciduous), Warm temperate forests (south-eastern), Temperate grasslands (Prairies), Tropical forests (Central America), Mediterranean forests (California), and Desert vegetation (south-western).

What are the Prairies and why are they important?

The Prairies are temperate grasslands found in the interior of North America, extending from the coniferous forest belt to the Gulf of Mexico. They are important for wheat cultivation (making Canada and USA the largest wheat producers) and cattle rearing. The fertile soil and flat terrain make them the “breadbasket” of North America.

What are the major mineral resources of North America?

North America has vast deposits of iron ore (Lake Superior region, Canadian Shield), coal (Appalachian region, Pennsylvania), petroleum and natural gas (central lowland, Gulf Plains, Alaska), copper, gold, silver, nickel, platinum, lead and zinc (Rocky Mountains, Canadian Shield). Mexico is the largest producer of silver in the world.

What is the significance of the Canadian Shield?

The Canadian Shield occupies about half the area of Canada and contains the oldest and hardest rocks in North America. It is characterized by round hills, lakes, and swamps, and is rich in mineral resources including gold, silver, uranium, iron, nickel, and copper. The Great Lakes form its southern boundary and Niagara Falls is located between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario.

What is the Panama Canal and why is it important?

The Panama Canal was constructed by the USA in 1914 at the Isthmus of Panama to connect the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean. It is important because it provides a shortcut for ships traveling between the east and west coasts of North America, eliminating the need to travel around the southern tip of South America, saving time and costs for maritime trade.

What are hurricanes and how do they affect North America?

Hurricanes are tropical cyclones that form over the warm tropical waters of the Atlantic Ocean from June to November. They affect eastern USA, the Caribbean, and Central America, causing large-scale destruction of life and property. Major hurricanes include Katrina, Rita, and Wilma, which caused devastating damage in recent years.

What are the major industries in North America?

North America’s major industries include flour milling, wood pulp, paper and newsprint (Canada is the largest producer), textiles, iron and steel, automobiles, engineering goods, transport equipment, agricultural machinery, fertilizers, chemicals, petrochemicals, synthetic fibres, electronics, and computer hardware and software. Cuba is known for its sugar and cigar industry.

What are the main agricultural crops grown in North America?

The main cereal crops are wheat (grown in the Prairies), maize/corn (grown in the corn belt), barley and oats. Cash crops include cotton (grown in the cotton belt of the Mississippi basin), tobacco, sugarcane (Cuba is the “Sugar Bowl of the World”), coffee, cocoa, banana, groundnuts, and soyabeans. North America is the largest cotton producer in the world.

What is the Grand Banks and its significance?

The Grand Banks is a region around Newfoundland that is one of the biggest fishing banks in the world. It is rich in plankton due to the meeting of the warm Gulf Stream and cold Labrador Current, creating ideal conditions for fish. Cod, halibut, herring, and mackerel are caught here, making it a major fishing ground.

What is the population distribution pattern in North America?

North America has a total population of about 550 million with an average density of 22 persons per sq km. The distribution is highly uneven—parts of the western mountains, deserts, central plains, and northern regions are sparsely populated. The eastern coast and central lowland have high population density due to mild climate, fertile soil, and abundant mineral resources. Mexico City is the most populous city.

What is the transport network like in North America?

North America has one of the finest transport systems in the world, including excellent road networks (freeways and expressways), efficient transcontinental railways (concentrated in the eastern part), important waterways (St Lawrence River, Great Lakes, Mississippi River), and extensive airways. The Panama Canal is a crucial waterway connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

Conclusion

North America stands as a continent of remarkable diversity, from its vast physical extent spanning the frigid Arctic to the tropical warmth of Central America and the Caribbean. Its location entirely in the Northern and Western Hemispheres, with a north-south extent of approximately 8,500 km and east-west extent of about 6,400 km, gives it one of the most varied climatic regimes on Earth. The continent’s physical divisions—the Western Cordillera with its majestic young fold mountains, the ancient Canadian Shield rich in minerals, the Appalachian Highlands that once stood as barriers to westward expansion, and the fertile Central Lowland—each contribute uniquely to the continent’s geography and economic potential.

The climate of North America, shaped by its size, mountain orientation, ocean currents, and prevailing winds, ranges from the extreme cold of the Tundra and Taiga to the arid heat of the desert south-west. The moderating influence of the Gulf Stream contrasts sharply with the chilling effects of the Labrador and California currents, while the continent’s north-south mountain ranges create distinct rainshadow regions. These climatic variations support an equally diverse array of natural vegetation, from the treeless tundra and vast taiga forests to the productive Prairies, Mediterranean shrublands, and tropical rainforests.

The continent’s abundant natural resources—valuable timber, fertile agricultural land