The Mughal Empire: A Comprehensive History of India’s Greatest Dynasty
Timeline of the Mughal Empire
- 1526: Babur established at Agra
- 1530: Humayun succeeds
- 1540: Sher Shah deposes Humayun
- 1555: Humayun regains Delhi
The Mughals called themselves so after their Mongol ancestry. Unlike the Delhi Sultanate, which was ruled by many dynasties, the Mughal period witnessed rule by a single dynasty for nearly two-and-a-half centuries. Sher Shah Suri’s rule was the only break in between. The Mughals established an empire which roughly coincides with the present Indian territory.
The Mughal period is also described as the ‘Early Modern’ period. This is because this era witnessed major changes in trade, agriculture and technology. For instance, with the creation of more sea routes and expansion in trade, currency came to be used increasingly. These changes were supported by a stable, centralised empire.
Political Condition Before the Mughal Conquest
The political condition in the north-west around this time, made Babur’s conquest easier. Ibrahim Lodi, the Sultan of Delhi and Punjab was trying to establish a large empire which alarmed the Afghan chiefs. The rulers of Bihar and Punjab had revolted against him. The Rajput rulers were also plotting against him.
Daulat Khan, the Governor of Punjab, along with the uncle of Ibrahim Lodi, invited Babur, the King of Kabul, to attack this region.
Babur (AD 1494–1530): Founder of the Mughal Empire in India
Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire in India, was born in AD 1483 in Farghana, a small principality in Central Asia. He traced his ancestry to the two warrior tribes of Central Asia led by Timur and Genghiz Khan. He became king of Farghana at the early age of 12, upon his father’s death. In a couple of years he fulfilled his dream of conquering Samarkand. Soon he lost his kingdom to the warring tribes. Failing to conquer it back after several attempts, he turned eastwards and conquered Kabul in AD 1504. Daulat Khan and Rana Sanga of Mewar thought that Babur, whom they had invited to India, would raid this area and return to Kabul with the loot. But when Babur occupied parts of Punjab, they turned against him. Babur defeated Daulat Khan and marched towards Delhi.
First Battle of Panipat (1526): Babur’s Victory Over Ibrahim Lodi
On hearing about Babur’s march towards Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi set out with a large army to meet the enemy. The two armies met at the fateful battlefield of Panipat on April 21, 1526. Ibrahim Lodi was defeated and killed and his army was routed. The reasons for Babur’s success were:
- Babur’s small army consisting of 12,000 men was well trained and disciplined, while Ibrahim’s huge army was indisciplined and disorganised.
- Babur used artillery, which was unknown to Ibrahim’s army till then. In fact, he used canons in warfare for the first time in India. The long practised enveloping tactics of the Central Asian cavalry proved highly effective against a large unwieldy army of 80,000 cavalry and 500 war elephants.
Babur soon occupied Delhi and Agra and laid the foundations of the Mughal Empire. Agra was made the capital. Babur went on to suppress the rulers of the Rajputana and other chiefs, upto the regions of Bengal and Bihar. By 1530, he had acquired a large empire in the north and the richest of the areas in India, the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. In AD 1528, he captured Chanderi in Malwa. In AD 1529, Babur defeated the Afghans at the Battle of Ghagra. Before he could consolidate his empire, Babur died at the age of 48 in AD 1530.
Babur was not only a brilliant general, but also had qualities of a great leader. Like his contemporaries of the Renaissance period in Europe, Babur too had varied interests. He was well-read and could write in Turkish as well as in Persian. He wrote the Tuzuk-i-Baburi or the Baburnama, which is an autobiography. It provides information on his character, achievements and the life of the times. He loved nature, laid down a number of gardens in Kabul and India, and planted fruit trees. He also loved music and enjoyed polo. He was a superb horseman, and was very strong—he could run on a rampart holding two men under his arms.
The word Babur means ‘lion’. He was worthy of his name.
He had established a vast empire, stretching from Kabul to Bihar and from the Himalayas to Gwalior, but did not live long enough to consolidate it.
A Story About Babur’s Sacrifice for Humayun
According to some writers, Babur’s eldest son Humayun had fallen ill. Babur went round the bed and prayed to the Almighty that his son’s life be spared and his own be taken instead. From that day Humayun began to recover, while Babur fell ill. Babur died and was buried in a beautiful garden in Kabul.
Humayun (1530–1540 and 1555–1556): The Fortunate but Unfortunate Mughal Emperor
Eldest son of Babur, Nasir-ud-din Humayun, succeeded Babur in 1530. Humayun means ‘fortunate’ but Humayun was one of the most unfortunate rulers in history. He lacked the qualities that were necessary to consolidate such a large empire. He faced trouble from the very beginning. Babur had advised Humayun to treat his brothers Kamran, Hindal and Askari generously. But they did not cooperate with him.
Wars and Revolts During Humayun’s Reign
When Humayun ascended the throne, enemies surrounded him. The Afghans and the Rajputs were still hostile. Bahadur Shah, the ruler of Gujarat, wanted to extend his empire. Sher Shah, the Afghan ruler of Bihar, aspired to overthrow the Mughal rule and ascend the throne of Delhi.
The first to revolt was Kamran, Humayun’s brother. Revolts also broke out in Bundelkhand, Jaunpur and Bihar. Humayun was able to suppress these revolts partially, but before he could achieve complete success, he had to return to Delhi to check… …the revolt of Bahadur Shah, the ruler of Gujarat. Humayun defeated him at Mandasore but as soon as his back was turned, Bahadur Shah recaptured Gujarat.
War Against Sher Shah Suri: Humayun’s Defeat at Chausa and Kanauj
Humayun had just defeated Bahadur Shah when he got the news of Sher Shah’s revolt and subsequent conquest of Bengal. Humayun marched towards Bengal and captured the fort of Gaur. But the wily Sher Shah avoided a confrontation with the Mughals and allowed Humayun to enter Bengal. This easy victory over Sher Shah elated Humayun. Meanwhile, his brothers were hatching a conspiracy in Agra to overthrow him. He was forced to rush to Agra. Taking advantage of the situation, Sher Shah attacked the retreating forces of Humayun at Chausa and defeated him in AD 1539. In order to save his life, Humayun had to jump into the flooded river where a bhisti or water-carrier saved him from drowning.
Elated with success, Sher Shah planned another attack on the Mughal army in AD 1540. The two armies met at Kanauj where Humayun was defeated. Humayun fled for his life. Sher Shah occupied the throne of Delhi.
Humayun was forced to wander through Rajasthan and Sind. At Amarkot, he married a young girl called Hamida Banu and a son was born to him who later became the greatest Mughal emperor—Akbar.
At Amarkot, Humayun also met Bairam Khan, who became his faithful friend and later the guardian of his young son, Akbar. Failing to get support from any of his brothers, Humayun left for Persia. With the help of Persian forces, Humayun attacked his brother and captured Kandahar. Sher Shah died in AD 1545. Having consolidated his position in Afghanistan, Humayun marched towards Delhi to regain his lost empire. He successfully recaptured Delhi and Agra after a gap of fifteen years. Humayun re-established the Mughal rule but did not live long enough to enjoy the fruits of his labour. He died in AD 1556, when he fell from his library staircase.
Humayun was a man of letters and culture. He knew many languages and was well-versed in subjects like mathematics, philosophy and astronomy. He was a brave soldier but lacked the qualities of a great general. He was not far-sighted, often lacked judgement and hence was not an efficient administrator.
Fact File
Humayun’s biography, the Humayunnama was written by his sister Gulbadan. Her Persian memoirs also talk about the life and role of court women in those days. They influenced property decisions and also family alliances, rituals, etc.
A Story About Akbar’s Birth and the Kasturi
When Akbar was born, Humayun did not have anything to offer his wife. He finally presented her with a kasturi, the musk bag carried under its abdomen by the male musk deer, known for its fragrance. He wished that the fame of his newly-born son would also spread like the perfume of the kasturi. Akbar later grew up to be the most successful ruler of his time.
Sher Shah Suri (AD 1540–1545): The Great Administrator of the Suri Dynasty
Farid Khan was the son of a jagirdar of Sasaram, in Bihar, named Hasan Khan. He managed his father’s jagir efficiently, but quarrels with his stepmother forced him to seek employment under the ruler of Bihar. Once he happened to kill a tiger single-handedly and came to be called ‘Sher Khan’. He became the regent, as the ruler of Bihar was a minor. Later he himself became the ruler of Bihar. While Humayun was busy in Gujarat, he captured Gaur, which was the capital of Bengal. He defeated Humayun twice—at Chausa in AD 1539 and then again in Kanauj in AD 1540. Humayun had to flee from India and Sher Khan crowned himself emperor at Delhi. Sher Shah ruled for only a short period of five years. But those five years are glorious pages in the history of administration in our country.
Sher Shah expanded the empire by annexing Punjab, Sind and Multan to his empire. He also conquered Gwalior, Malwa in central India and a large part of Rajasthan. His empire now extended from Bengal in the east to the Indus in the west. He died in AD 1545, in Bundelkhand, when gunpowder exploded near him accidentally.
Administration of Sher Shah Suri: The Foundation of Mughal Governance
Sher Shah is regarded as one of the greatest administrators in Indian history. He was a brilliant general and a far-sighted administrator. The Mughal administration was based on the system started by him. He introduced many reforms for the welfare of his subjects, both Hindus and Muslims. Hindus were also appointed to high posts.
Division of the Empire Under Sher Shah Suri
Empire -> Emperor
↓
Sarkars -> Shiqdar-i-shiqdaran, Munsif-i-munsifan, Qazi
↓
Parganas -> Munsif, Shiqdar
↓
Villages -> Muqqaddam, Kotwal, Patwari and Village Panchayat
The empire was divided into 47 sarkars. Each sarkar was further divided into parganas. The sarkars were put in charge under three main officers—the shiqdar-i-shiqdaran was in charge of finance, law, order, and the army; the munsif-i-munsifan collected the revenue taxes; while the qazi was the chief judge.
In order to keep himself informed about the activities of his officers, Sher Shah also organised an efficient espionage system.
Revenue System of Sher Shah Suri: Land Measurement and Taxation
Sher Shah is renowned for introducing a sound revenue system. With the help of his revenue minister, all land was measured and its yield assessed. Peasants paid the state one-third of the produce as taxes. Taxes could be paid in cash or in kind. Although the revenue was collected strictly, peasants were given loans in times of natural calamities like droughts or floods. Documents were maintained properly. The revenue system of Sher Shah impressed Akbar so much that he adopted it with only minor changes.
Public Welfare and the Grand Trunk Road Built by Sher Shah
Sher Shah built an excellent network of roads throughout his empire. The most famous of these is the Grand Trunk Road.
Fact File
Important roads built by Sher Shah:
- The Grand Trunk Road which connected Sonargaon in East Bengal to the Indus passed through Agra, Delhi, Lahore and Peshawar.
- Road from Agra to Burhanpur.
- Road from Agra to Jodhpur and Chittor in Rajputana.
- Road from Lahore and Multan.
These were provided with rest houses or sarais at intervals. 1700 sarais were constructed with separate rooms for Hindus and Muslims. He followed a policy of religious tolerance and placed people in the administration according to their merit. Trees were planted on both sides of the roads and muqaddams were responsible for the safety of travellers and their property. The sarais gradually became centres of trade with towns and cities developing around them. The sarais also served as dak chowkies. Horse riders delivered post from one chowki to the next.
Trade and Commerce Under Sher Shah Suri
With the establishment of law and order throughout the kingdom and a network of good roads, trade and commerce began to flourish. He issued new currency and developed a simple tax system during his reign which helped to promote trade and commerce. To encourage foreign trade, customs duty was levied only at two points in the east and the west. Sher Shah also introduced a new silver coin called the rupia, which is still a unit of Indian currency. Weights and measures were standardised.
Military Administration of Sher Shah Suri
Sher Shah maintained a large army, which was well trained and disciplined. The army comprised cavalry, infantry and war elephants. Sher Shah himself took great interest in the appointment of soldiers. Rank system was introduced, pays were fixed and descriptive rolls or hulia of each soldier were maintained. Soldiers received their salaries regularly in cash. Cantonments were created in various parts of the country, where soldiers were stationed.
Religious Policy of Sher Shah Suri
Sher Shah followed a policy of religious tolerance towards the Hindus and placed them in higher administrative posts. For instance, Raja Todar Mal, his revenue minister was a Hindu. He also had a Hindu general, Brahmajit Gaur.
Sher Shah Suri as a Builder: Sasaram Mausoleum and Purana Qila
Among the well-known buildings of Sher Shah is the beautiful mausoleum in the midst of a lake that he built for himself in Sasaram, Bihar. He rebuilt the city of Delhi and built a fort, which is now known as Purana Qila. The qila also has a beautiful mosque known as Qala-i-Kuhna Masjid.
Many historians regard Sher Shah as the forerunner of Akbar. Sher Shah was followed by inefficient successors. The administration was in the hands of Sher Shah’s able minister Hemu. There were revolts in various parts of the country. Taking advantage of this Humayun returned to India and succeeded in taking back Delhi and Agra in AD 1555.
Akbar (AD 1556–1605): The Greatest Ruler of the Mughal Empire
Timeline of Akbar’s Reign
- 1556: Akbar ascends the throne
- 1601: Mughal Empire reached its zenith
- 1605: Akbar passes away
Akbar is regarded as one of the greatest rulers of India. He established the Mughal dynasty as an empire. He faced many difficulties initially, as the Mughal Empire was not consolidated at that time. He was guided by his tutor and Humayun’s faithful general, Bairam Khan in his early days, and even after he became the Mughal emperor.
Early Life of Akbar and the Second Battle of Panipat
Jalaluddin Muhammed Akbar was born in AD 1542 at Amarkot in Rajasthan, when his father was running in search of shelter. Leaving Akbar with his brother, Askari, and with Bairam Khan, Humayun fled to Persia. Fifteen years later, Humayun regained his lost throne of Delhi, but his sudden death in AD 1556 brought Akbar to the throne, when he was barely 13 years old. Although Akbar did not receive a formal education, he was an excellent rider, a hunter and a marksman.
Second Battle of Panipat (1556): Akbar’s Victory Over Hemu
Taking advantage of Akbar’s young age, Hemu, the commander-in-chief of the Afghan ruler Adil Shah (descendent of Sher Shah), captured Delhi and Agra. The two armies met on November 5, 1556 at the battlefield of Panipat. There was a fierce battle and both sides incurred losses. The battle turned in favour of the Mughals when an arrow struck the right eye of Hemu and he became unconscious. There was panic in his army and his soldiers began to flee. Hemu was brought captive before Akbar and executed. Akbar regained Delhi and Agra.
Akbar’s Conquests: Expansion of the Mughal Empire
Bairam Khan, as his regent and prime minister, had helped Akbar conquer Punjab, Jaunpur, Ajmer and Gwalior. However, by 1560 Akbar was 18 years old and wished to rule independently. He, therefore, ordered Bairam to leave on a pilgrimage to Mecca, where he was assassinated on the way by an Afghan.
In order to establish himself firmly, Akbar set out to extend his empire further. He adopted two methods for this — matrimonial alliances and direct conquest.
In AD 1561 Adham Khan, the foster brother of Akbar, defeated Baz Bahadur, the ruler of Malwa, and annexed Malwa to the Mughal Empire. Baz Bahadur was given a mansab or high rank. Next, Akbar attacked Gondwana in AD 1564 and annexed it to the Mughal Empire.
Campaign Against Rajput States: Akbar’s Policy of Matrimonial Alliances and Conquest
Akbar followed the policy of either allying with the chiefs and kingdoms by offering them high positions in the administration or through battles.
In 1562, the Raja of Amber (Jaipur) got his eldest daughter Jodha Bai married to Akbar. The Raja, his son Bhagwan Das and grandson Man Singh were later given senior positions in Akbar’s army. Most of the Rajput chiefs accepted Akbar’s suzerainty gradually. Some Rajput chiefs, however, looked upon Akbar with suspicion and refused to yield to him or accept his suzerainty.
Rana Pratap of Mewar fought a valiant battle till death to retain the independence of Mewar. In 1567, Akbar defeated Mewar and captured Chittor in spite of the brave resistance put up by Raja Udai Singh and his generals Jaimal and Fatta.
Akbar next conquered Ranthambhor, Gujarat and Kalinjar. Rana Pratap Singh, the proud son of Raja Udai Singh of Mewar from the Sisodiyan clan, still held out and refused to yield. Man Singh defeated him in the famous Battle of Haldighati.
The Rana took shelter in the wilderness of the Aravallis. From there, he continued his battle against the Mughals and was able to recapture large parts of his kingdom.
Other Conquests of Akbar: Bengal, Kashmir, Kabul, and the Deccan
Akbar next turned his attention towards the rich and fertile province of Bengal. It had flourishing trade relations with South Asia and China. Bengal was annexed in AD 1574–1576.
In the north-west, Akbar conquered Kashmir in AD 1586, Kandahar and Kabul in AD 1587 and Sind in AD 1591. He was now able to protect his north-west frontier and increase trade between India, Central Asia and the West.
Deccan Campaign of Akbar
Having consolidated his empire in North India, Akbar sent his officials to persuade the rulers of Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Golconda to accept him as their suzerain. But they refused. He then waged war against Chand Bibi, the Queen of Ahmadnagar. She was defeated after a brave resistance and later killed by one of her own nobles. In AD 1596 Berar was annexed. In AD 1601 Khandesh was also annexed to the empire.
Akbar’s empire now extended from Hindu Kush in the north-west to the Brahmaputra in the east and from the Himalayas in the north to the Godavari in the south.
Administration of Akbar: The Mansabdari System and Governance
Akbar was not only a great warrior and a statesman but also an efficient administrator. His administrative policies were continued by his successors and also served as the basis of the administrative set up in British-India.
Akbar followed most of the policies of Sher Shah Suri with some improvement here and there. His administrative system can be studied under two heads.
- Central Administration
- Provincial Administration
Central Administration Under Akbar
Akbar was known to be a benevolent ruler who ruled for the welfare of his subjects. He started his day with an appearance at the balcony or jharokha of the palace and people gathered below it to get a glimpse of their Emperor and present their petitions. The petitions were listened to and promptly settled. The highest court of appeal was the Emperor himself. The emperor held court with the help of the following people:
- The most important of them all was the wazir and mir bakshi. The wazir was like the Prime Minister and the head of the revenue department. He was also known as the diwan. Mir bakshi, the pay master, looked after the military affairs and also headed the intelligence department of the empire.
- Khan-i-saman, was the next important minister who looked after the imperial household.
- Qazi was the chief of the judicial department. The other important officials were mir atish who supervised the artillery, daroga-i-taksal who was the supervisor of the royal mint and daroga-i-dak, incharge of the mail.
Akbar held audience in the Diwan-i-Aam regularly to hear personal grievances of the people. In order to check corruption and improve administration, he often went on tours and frequently transferred officials. He met his officials in the Diwan-i-Khas to seek their advise on various matters.
Provincial Administration Under Akbar
The empire was divided into 15 subbas, each in charge of a governor called subedar. The subbas were further divided into districts called sarkars which were divided into parganas. Each pargana consisted of a number of villages. The subedar was assisted by a diwan or the revenue minister. The kotwal maintained law and order, checked crime, and kept a record of all people living in the town. Officials were carefully appointed and were paid salaries regularly. For meritorious services, officials were also rewarded with land grants. The panchayat looked after the village administration and also imparted justice to the people.
Mansabdari System Introduced by Akbar
Akbar introduced the Mansabdari system. ‘Mansab’ is an Arabic word meaning rank or position. Every officer or noble was given a mansab or rank and was called a mansabdar. A mansabdar was required to maintain a stipulated number of horsemen according to his rank. There were 33 categories of mansabdar, the lowest being commander of 10 horsemen, and the highest commanding 10,000 soldiers. Mansabs of above 5,000 were reserved for princes and close relatives. Apart from salary in cash, jagir was also given to the mansabdar for paying the soldiers, and maintaining a fixed number of elephants, camels, mules and carts. However, Akbar was not solely dependent on the mansabdar, he had an army of well-trained soldiers and artillery under his direct control.
Economy and Land Revenue System of Akbar
Land Revenue System: Raja Todar Mal’s Reforms
Akbar appointed Raja Todar Mal, the revenue minister of Sher Shah Suri, as his revenue minister. He devised a system, which was followed till the coming of the British. The chief source of state income was land revenue. Land of each farmer was measured in bighas and divided into categories according to its produce. Bamboos were joined together with iron rings for measuring land. Land was divided into three grades—good, average and bad. Assessment was based on the average produce prevailing over the past ten years. The share of the state was one-third of the produce, which could be paid in cash or kind. Proper records of revenue were maintained. Farmers were also given loans in times of natural calamities.
Trade and Commerce Under Akbar
Trade was another source of revenue. Textiles, saltpetre, spices and indigo were the commodities exported. Both inland and overseas trade were encouraged. Roads were constructed and maintained. India traded with China, Central Asia and Europe. Gold coins called mohur were issued. Silver and copper coins were also used.
Religious Policy of Akbar: Sulh-i-kul and Din-i-Ilahi
Akbar was an enlightened emperor who held liberal views on religion. He believed in the basic unity of all religions and respected them. He popularised the principle of Sulh-i-kul and religious tolerance. He believed in the equality of all religions and developed a secular outlook. He won over the Rajputs by allowing them religious freedom and by observing their religious festivals.
- He abolished the jaziya tax and the pilgrim tax paid by non-Muslims.
- He gave high posts to Hindus like Todar Mal, Birbal, Bhagwan Das.
- Sikh Guru Ramdas was given a plot of land in Amritsar on which the Sikh shrine Shri Harmandar Sahib stands.
- He forbade cow slaughter and punished offenders.
In AD 1575, Akbar built the Ibadat Khana in Fatehpur Sikri, where he invited teachers and religious scholars for religious discussions. After hearing the discussions he held that all religions preached truth and that God was one.
In AD 1582, Akbar suggested a new religious path, which was later referred to as the Din-i-Ilahi or divine monotheism—the religion of one God. Every member was asked to take an oath of doing well to all. In the month of their birth, they were to abstain from non-vegetarian food. They worshipped the sun, fire and light. There were no sacred books, temples, priests or rituals. As the membership of the new faith was voluntary, very few people accepted it. With Akbar’s death, Din-i-Ilahi too disappeared.
Akbar tried to get rid of social evils like the practice of sati, and child marriage. He raised the minimum age of marriage for girls to 14 and for boys to 16. He also legalised widow remarriage.
Akbar’s Cultural Contributions: The Nine Gems and Patronage of Arts
Although Akbar was not a man of letters, he was a great patron of learning. He had a marvellous memory and learnt a lot by hearing. He held frequent discussions with religious thinkers, scholars and writers.
His court was adorned with nine gems, who were highly accomplished and distinguished in their respective fields. Among the literary gems of his court were Abul Fazl and Faizi. Abul Fazl wrote the Akbarnama, which is an account of Akbar’s life, and Ain-i-Akbari, which deals with the law and revenue system of the empire. Faizi was a poet who translated the Ramayana and Mahabharata into Persian. The Bhagvad Gita, the Bible and other famous Arabic and Greek works were also translated into Persian for benefit of the common man.
Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan (son of Bairam Khan) was famous for his dohe in Hindi. Todar Mal excelled as revenue minister. Bhagwan Das, brother of Akbar’s wife Queen Jodha Bai, and Man Singh were excellent generals. Birbal’s witticism has now become a part of Indian folklore, while Tansen, the greatest singer of the period, Hindustani classical music with compositions of new ragas like the Raga Darbari in honour of Akbar’s empire. Among others were Humam, a well known physician, and Mulla Do Piaza known for his ready wit. Shaikh Mubarak, a Sufi, influenced Akbar’s thinking, which made him liberal in his religious views. Surdas, Tulsidas and Mira Bai were others who received royal patronage.
Painting and Architecture Under Akbar
The art of painting was encouraged and royal karkhanas were established, where artists from various parts of the country could gather to work. Local styles were blended with the Persian style. Paintings mainly depicted hunting scenes and court scenes using bright blue and red colours. Painting was also used for book illustrations. Two painters of fame in the court of Akbar were Jaswant and Basawan.
In the field of architecture, the most outstanding contribution was the building of a new capital at Fatehpur Sikri, 36 km from Agra, which was chosen because it was the birthplace of the Sufi saint Salim Chisti. It has several fine buildings, such as the Panch Mahal, Jodha Bai’s palace, Diwan-i-Khas, Jamia Masjid, Ibadat Khana and the Buland Darwaza, which was constructed to celebrate his victory over Gujarat. The fort also consists of the tomb of Salim Chisti, which is in white marble. Fatehpur Sikri was very soon abandoned due to unavailability of water. Akbar built many forts and palaces. He preferred red sandstone to marble.
The last days of Akbar were full of grief. His sons Murad and Danyal died. Impatient to secure the throne, his only surviving son, Salim, had revolted against him. Abul Fazl, a close friend of Akbar was also killed in the process. However, Salim and Akbar settled their differences and Salim was proclaimed his successor. Akbar died in AD 1605.
According to Abul Fazl, Akbar was a man of vitality and a connoisseur of all arts. He developed a new image of the emperor as not just a military leader and patron of the learned, but one among them. Akbar and his successors therefore, developed a different kind of kingship from the Delhi Sultans.
In the Akbarnama Abul Fazl writes that Akbar had passed through the most diverse phases of religious practices and beliefs from early childhood. He gradually became convinced that there were sensible men in all religions and austere thinkers in all nations. Therefore, he wondered, if some truth was found everywhere, why should truth be restricted to one religion.
Jahangir and Shah Jahan: The Golden Age of the Mughal Empire
Timeline of Jahangir and Shah Jahan’s Reigns
- 1605: Jahangir ascends the throne
- 1615: Arrival of Thomas Roe
- 1627: Jahangir passes away
- 1628: Shah Jahan ascends the throne
- 1666: Death of Shah Jahan
Jahangir (AD 1605–1627): The World Seizer and His Reign
On the death of Akbar in AD 1605, his son Muhammed Sultan Salim (named after the great Sufi saint, Sheikh Salim Chisti), succeeded him to the throne. On ascending the throne, he assumed the title ‘Nuruddin Jahangir’ which means ‘World Seizer’. He inherited what was probably the most powerful empire in the world at the time and the strongest in Indian history to date. Jahangir continued the policies of his father. He was well-educated, fond of literature, painting and nature. He cared about the welfare of his subjects.
Khusrau’s Rebellion and Jahangir’s Conquests
Within five months after his succession to the throne, Jahangir’s son Khusrau, in alliance with Man Singh, revolted against him. The prince was defeated and imprisoned.
In comparison to Akbar’s conquests, Jahangir’s achievements were less spectacular. However, he held the vast empire together with great efficiency.
In AD 1613, Jahangir marched against Rana Amar Singh of Mewar, who had refused to accept the suzerainty of the Mughals. Rana Amar Singh was defeated. He remained loyal to the Mughal emperor for the rest of his life. Jahangir also conquered Kangra, Avadh and Bengal, and brought them under his control. He sent his son, Prince Khurram, to campaign against Malik Ambar. Although Prince Khurram was able to annex Ahmadnagar in AD 1616, Malik Ambar declared his independence a few years later. The Deccan continued to be an irritant for the Mughals.
The Persians attacked Kandahar in AD 1622, so Jahangir decided to send Prince Khurram to defend it. Prince Khurram refused to go and rebelled. Kandahar was occupied by the Persians, which affected the trade between India and Central Asia.
Fact File
Jahangir’s sense of justice…
It is said that Jahangir had a golden ‘Chain of Justice’ connected from his palace to the banks of the Yamuna. It was attached with 60 bells. Anyone could ring the bell and personally seek justice from Jahangir.
Relations with the Europeans Under Jahangir
When Jahangir ascended the throne, the Portuguese, the Dutch and the English traders had already arrived in India. The Portuguese traders were granted trade concessions by Jahangir. But they soon incurred his wrath when they began to indulge in piracy and attacked Mughal ships. Jahangir refused permission to conduct any trade with the Mughal Empire.
It was during Jahangir’s reign that two Englishmen, John Hawkins and Sir Thomas Roe arrived in India as ambassadors of King James I of England. The English East India Company had already been formed in AD 1600. Sir Thomas Roe, who came to India in AD 1615, succeeded in obtaining trade concessions for British traders, and also got the permission to set up a factory at Surat.
Nur Jahan: The Powerful Empress of Jahangir’s Court
In AD 1611, Jahangir married Nurjahan (which means ‘light of the world’). She was extremely beautiful and a highly talented lady and soon began to influence Jahangir with her intelligence and creative abilities. He started consulting her on all matters related to the government. During Jahangir’s illness, she took over the reins of the government and got her family members appointed to high offices. Her father was made the wazir while her brother, Asaf Khan, was made the mir saman. Suspicious of her moves, Prince Khurram and Mohabet Khan, a faithful general of Jahangir rose in revolt against Nur Jahan. During the last sixteen years of his reign, Jahangir left the entire administration in Nur Jahan’s hands while he himself became addicted to wine. When Jahangir died in AD 1627, he was succeeded by his son Khurram. After her husband’s death, Nur Jahan retired from court life. She died in AD 1645.
A Story About Nur Jahan
Mehrunnisa was the daughter of Mirza Ghias Beg, also known as Itmad-ud-Daulah, a noble in the court of Akbar. She was married to Sher Afghan, the governor of Burdwan, in Bengal. After the death of Sher Afghan, she returned to live with her father. Jahangir was attracted by her wit, intelligence and beauty. He married her in AD 1611 and made her his chief queen and gave her the title ‘Nur Jahan’ (light of the world). Her abilities which ranged from fashion designing to hunting gave her unusual influence over Jahangir. She is known to have killed four tigers with six bullets!
Shah Jahan (AD 1628–1658): The Builder of the Taj Mahal and the Age of Magnificence
The death of Jahangir was followed by a brief struggle for succession. In AD 1628, Khurram, his third son, managed to remove all his rivals, and ascended the throne under the title Shah Jahan (Ruler of the World).
Conquests and North-West Policy of Shah Jahan
Shah Jahan was a great general and wanted to extend his empire. He put down the revolts of Jujhar Singh, a Bundela chief, in Bundelkhand and that of Khan Jahan Lodi, the subedar of Deccan. In order to bring Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Golconda under control, he appointed Aurangzeb, his most capable son, as the subedar of Deccan. In a series of campaigns, Ahmadnagar was conquered in AD 1633 and Bijapur and Golconda submitted and accepted the suzerainty of the Mughals in AD 1636 and 1656 respectively, and agreed to pay an annual tribute.
Shah Jahan’s dreams of re-conquering his ancestors’ territory in Central Asia ended in failure. He also failed to recover Kandahar from the Persians. The loss of Kandahar was a severe blow to the prestige of the Mughal Empire.
Relations with European Traders Under Shah Jahan
The Portuguese had been allowed to establish a factory in Hugli in Bengal, during the reign of Akbar. In AD 1641, Shah Jahan’s army defeated the Portuguese and turned them out of Hugli.